Class : 

Book.. 

GopyiigMl^^^. 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



Edited by L. H. Bailey 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 
VEGETABLE-GARDENING 



Edited by L. H. Bailey 
The Soil. King. 

The Spraying of Plants. Lodeman. 
Milk and its Products. Wing. Enlarged and Revised. 
The Fertility of the Land. Roberts. 
The Principles of Fruit-growing. Bailey. 20th Edi- 
tion, Revised. 
Bush-fruits. Card. Revised. 

The Principles of Agriculture. Bailey. Revised. 

Irrigation and Drainage. King. 

The Farmstead. Roberts. 

Rural Wealth and Welfare. FaircMld. 

The Principles of Vegetable-gardening. Bailey. I8th 
Edition, Revised. 

Farm Poultry. Watson. Enlarged and Revised. 

The Feeding of Animals. Jordan, (^'0w Rural Text- 
Bool' Series. Revised.) 

The Farmer's Business Handbook. Roberts. 

The Diseases of Animals. Mayo. 

The Horse. Roberts. 

How TO Choose a Farm. Hunt. 

Forage Crops. Yoorhees. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. Lipman. 
Fertilizers. Yoorhees. Revised. 

The Nursery-book. Bailey. {Now Nursery-Manual. 
Revised.) 

Plant-breeding. Bailey and Gilbert. Revised. 
The Forcing-book. Bailey. 

The Pruning-book. Bailey. {Now Pruning-Manual. 
Revised.) 

Fruit-growing in Arid Regions. Paddock and Whipple. 

Rural Hygiene. Ogden. 

Dry-farming. Widtsoe. 

Law for the American Farmer. Green. 

Farm Boys and Girls. McKeever. 

The Training and Breaking of Horses. Harper. 

Sheep-farming in North America. Craig. 

Cooperation in Agriculture. Powell. 

The Farm Woodlot. Cheyney and Wentling. 

Household Insects. HerricJc. 

Citrus Fruits. Coit. 

Principles of Rural Credits. Morman. 

Beekeeping. Phillips. 

Subtropical Vegetable-gardening. Rolfs. 
Turf for Golf Courses. Piper and Oakley. 
The Potato. Gilbert. 
Strawberry-growing. Fletcher. 
Western Live-stock Management. Potter. 
Peach-growing. Gould. 
The Sugar-beet in America. Harris. 
Pork Production. Smith. 

Commercial Apple Industry of North America. Folger 

and Thomson. 
Sweet Potato. Hand and Cockerham. 
Landscape-gardening. Simonds. 

Development of Institutions Under Irrigation. 
Thomas. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 
VEGETABLE-GARDENING 



BY 

L. H. BAILEY 



EIGHTEENTH EDITION 
Re-made and Re-set 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1921 



All rights reserved 



Copyright, 1901 and 1921 
By L. H. bailey 
Set up and electrotyped January, 1901 

Re-made and re-set June, 1921 



NO^ -2 1921 
g)CI.A6304B4 

Printed in the United States of America 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

PAGES 

The Subject 1-18 

Group I. The Herbage Vegetables 3-7 

Group II. The Root Vegetables 7-9 

Group III. The Fruit Vegetables 9-11 

The Laboratory 15-17 

The Plan of the Book 17-18 

CHAPTER II 

Perennial Crops 19-50 

Asparagus 20-32 

Distances; Planting 23-24 

Tillage and Care 24-26 

The Crop 27-28 

Seedlings 29-3i 

Varieties 31 

The Asparagus Plant 31-32 

Rhubarb or Pie-Plant 32-38 

The Rhubarb Plant 37-38 

Artichoke 39-42 

The Artichoke Plant 41-42 

Girasole 42-44 

The Girasole Plant 44 

Sea-kale 45-47 

The Sea-kale Plant 40-47 

Dock and Sorrel 48-49 

Udo ; . . . 49-50 

(V) 



vi 



Contents 



CHAPTER III 

PAGES 

Spinach and Other Greens 51-65 

Spinach 52-58 

The Spinach Plant 57-58 

Other Greens 58-65 

Orach 59 

Chard or Leaf-Beet 59-60 

Mustard 60-61 

Purslane 61-63 

Dandelion 63-65 

CHAPTER IV 

Cole Crops 66-98 

Cabbage 66-79 

Propagation ; Tillage 74-75 

Harvesting; Storing 75-78 

Varieties; Seed-growing 78-79 

Kale or Borecole; Collards 79-81 

Brussels Sprouts 81-83 

Cauliflower; Broccoli 83-87 

Kohlrabi 87-88 

Pe-tsai 88-91 

The Cole Plants and Their Kin . , 91-98 

CHAPTER V 

Salad Crops 99-139 

Lettuce 100-109 

The Lettuce Plant 107-109 



Contents vii 

PAGES 

Endive and Chicory 109-116 

Chicory 112-114 

The Endive and Chicory Plants 114-116 

Cress 116-121 

Garden Cress 116-118 

Water-Cress 118-121 

Corn-salad 121-123 

Parsley 123-124 

Salad Chervil 124-126 

Celery 126-139 

Field Management 129-132 

Blanching 132-135 

Marketing ; storing 136-138 

Varieties 138 

The Celery Plant 138-139 

CHAPTER VI 

Bulb or Onion Crops 140-160 

Onion 141-154 

Early Green Onions 144-146 

Main-crop Dry Onions 146-147 

The Seeding 148-149 

Field Practices 149-152 

Storing 152-153 

The Kinds 153-154 

Other Alliaceous Crops 154-160 

Leek 154-155 

Garlic 155 

Ciboule or Welsh Onion 156 

Shallot 156 

Chive or Chives 156 

The Onion Plants 156-160 



viii 



Contents 



CHAPTER VII 

PAGES 

Root Ceops 161-200 

Beet 164-170 

Tlie Beet Plant 169-170 

Radish 170-177 

The Radish Plant 175-177 

Turnip and Rutabaga 177-181 

Rutabaga 179-181 

Horse-radish 181-185 

The Horse-radish Plant 184-185 

Carrot 185-190 

The Carrot Plant 189-190 

Parsnip 190-193 

The Parsnip Plant 192-193 

Celeriac 193-194 

Turnip-rooted or Tuberous Chervil 194-195 

Skirret 195-196 

Salsify , 196-198 

The Salsify Plant 197-198 

Scorzonera or Black Salsify 198 

Scolymus or Spanish Salsify 198-200 

CHAPTER VIII 

The Potato Crops 201-227 

Potato 202-216 

Land and Tillage 208-209 

Seeding 209-210 

Harvesting and Storing 210-214 

Varieties 214-215 

The Potato Plant 215-216 



Contents ix 

PAGES 

Sweet Potato 216-227 

Propagation 220-222 

Harvesting and Storing 222-220 

Varieties 226 

The Sweet Potato Plant 226-227 

CHAPTER IX 

Peas and Beans 228-253 

Pea . 229-235 

The Pea Plant 234-235 

Beans 235-253 

Broad Bean 242-243 

The Common Garden Bean 243-246 

Multiflora Bean 246-247 

Sieva and Lima Beans 247-250 

The Bean Plants 250-253 

CHAPTER X 

SoLANACEOus Fbuits 254-27 

Tomato 255-26 

Starting the Plants 258-26 

Training and Pruning 260-262 

Harvesting and Marketing 262-263 

Kinds 263-264 

The Tomato Plant 264-267 

Eggplant 267-273 

The Eggplants 272-273 

Pepper or Capsicum 273-278 

The Pepper Plants 275-278 

Husk Tomato 278-279 



X 



Contents 



CHAPTER XI 

PAGES 

The Cucuebits . 280-315 

Cucumber and Gherkin 284-291 

Melon 291-296 

Watermelon 296-301 

Pumpkin and Squash 301-305 

The Cucurbitous Plants ; 305-315 

CHAPTER XII 

Sweet Corn. Okra. Martynia 316-330 

Sweet Corn 316-323 

The Sweet Maize Plant 322-323 

Okra or Gumbo 323-327 

The Okra Plant 327 

Martynia 327-330 

CHAPTER XIII 
Culinary Herbs 331-334 

CHAPTER XIV 

Glass 335-364 

1. Quantity of Glass Required 336-338 

2. The Making of Frames . 338-342 

Location and Exposure 339-340 

Building the Frame 340-342 

3. Coldframes and Forcing-hills 342-346 

Forcing-hills 343-346 



Contents xi 

PAGES 

4. Hotbeds 346 

Handling the Horse Manure 346-348 

Making the Manure Bed 348-350 

Pipe-heated Hotbeds 350-351 

Flue-heated Beds 351-353 

Substitutes for Glass 353-354 

Hotbed Covers 354-356 

Sowing Seeds in the Hotbed 356-358 

5. The Management of Frames 358-364 

Wintering Autumn-Sown Plants 363-364 

CHAPTER XV 

The Land and Its Treatment 365-387 

1. The Amelioration of the Land 369-377 

Drainage 300-371 

Tillage 371-375 

Addition of Humus 375-376 

Rotation 376-377 

2. The Direct Fertilizing of the Land 377-384 

3. The Irrigation of the Land 384-387 

CHAPTER XVI 

Vegetable-gardening Tools and Implements 388-396 

The Implements and Their Work 392-396 

CHAPTER XVII 

Seeds and Seedage 397-413 

1. The Testing of Seeds ' 397-402 

Testing for Impurities 398-399 

Testing for Viability 399-401 

Percentages and Longevity 401-402 



xii 



Contents 



PAGES 

2. The Growing of Seeds 402-407 

The Breeding of Seeds 403-405 

Seed-growing 405-407 

3. The Sowing of Seeds 407-413 

Particulars in Seed-sowing 408-411 

The Seed-Bed 411-413 

Sterilizing the Soil 413 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Other Management of the Vegetable-Garden , . . 414-438 

1. Double-cropping or Inter-cropping 414-418 

Succession-cropping 414^10 

Companion-cropping 417-ilS 

2. Transplanting . . . 418-423 

3. Weeds 423-425 

4. Insects and Fungi 425^38 

Insectides 429 

Fungicides 429^30 

Cutworms and Army-worms 430-432 

Wireworms 432-433 

"White grubs 433 

Grasshoppers 433 

Red-spider 434 

Blister-beetles 434 

Flea-beetles •. . . 435 . 

Greenhouse white-fly 435-436 

Root-knot Nematode or Eel-worm 436 

Millipedes 436-437 

Slugs 437-438 



Contents xiii 
CHAPTER XIX 

PAGES 

Maeketing, Stoking, Drying 439-465 

1. Grading and Packing 441-447 

2. Storing 447-458 

Pits, or Field Storage 451^54 

Various Patterns of Storage Structures . . 454-457 
The Burying of Vegetables 457-458 

3. Drying 458-465 

CHAPTER XX 

The Home Garden 466-475 

Index 477-490 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 

VEGETABLE - GARDENING 



CHAPTEE I 

THE SUBJECT 

All plants are vegetables ; 3'et by custom we designate the 
oleraceous or esculent herbs in a class by themselves, call- 
ing them " vegetables " in a restricted sense. The growing 
of these plants is known as vegetahle-gardening, an awk- 
ward and ambiguous term, although now well restricted by 
usage. Sturtevant propounded the term olericulture'^' 
(ol'ericulture, from Latin olus, kitchen herbs), but it is 
little used. Its etymology is good, but the word is rather 
formidable, and it naturally implies only the culture of 
vegetables, whereas the subject gathers to itself much, fact 
and interest not closely connected with the manual prac- 
tices. This term should properly cover the subjects 

*E. Lewis Sturtevant, Proc. Western N. Y. Hort. Soc, 1886, 25: 
"As we indulge in special studies we often find a necessity for additional 
words to our language which shall express more definitely our subject than 
those in common use. . . .1 suggest in addition pomiculHire, or fruit- 
culture, and olericulture, or vegetable-culture." 

(1) 



2 



The Suljcct 



associated with the olerarium, which is the olery or vege- 
table-garden. Effort has been taken to make a new term 
from plainer sources, as Day's vegeculturc,^ but this is 
linguistically imperfect, although custom may eventually 
sanction it, or something like it, and in that event 
the justification will lie in considering it a contradiction of 
''vegetable-culture"; vegeticuUure would be better. 

Historically, the garden vegetal)les are specially those of 
edible herbage and root, eaten with meats or other foods 
rather than as desserts. They are cooked as pot-herbs, or 
eaten raw as salads. Cabbages and all their kind, spinach, 
lettuce, beet-root, onion tribes, are of this class. But now 
we add many fruits, and some of them are strictly desserts, 
as the melons, which may be treated in European books 
on fruit-culture, as strawberries may be treated in books 
on vegetable-gardening. But the vegetables, in current 
usage, are products of herbaceous plants and usually of 
annuals, whereas the fruits (if we conveniently forget the 
strawberry and do not define too closely Avith the banana 
and a few others) are products of woody plants. But 
although the definition may be difficult, my reader knows 
what a vegetable is ; or if he does not know, he may more 
or less inform himself as he turns these pages. 

The term vegetable-gardening, then, comprises a wide 
range of products limited by usage. Associated with the 
subject is also a large series of commercial questions in 
manufacture, transportation, refrigeration, marketing. 
This book deals primarily with the gardening phase of the 
subject, as its title indicates, for " horticulture ends at the 



*Harry A. Day, F.R.H.S, Vegeculture: How to grow vegetables, salads, 
and herbs in town and country. London, 1917. 



Inventory 



3 



factory door/' as it is written in the Annals of Horti- 
culture for 1891; wherefore we may compile an inventory 
at the outset of vegetable-garden plants. The list is not 
nearly complete for the countries of the world, but it con- 
tains sufficient species for purposes of illustration, and it 
includes all those grown to any extent in the United States 
and Canada. The first obligation of the horticulturist is 
.to know his plants and be able to grow them. 

If the reader is curious to compare this inventory with 
a catalogue of species of fruits (as in Principles of Fruit- 
Growing, 20th and subsequent editions) he will note the 
marked dissimilarities in the representations of the fam- 
lies of plants. The great Eose famil}^, so abundant in 
pomological material, is practically unrepresented, whereas 
the Pea family, barely represented in the fruits, is fertile 
in important species. The Eue family (Eutaceas, yielding 
the citrus fruits) is unrepresented, as also Myrtaceae, Vita- 
ceae, Palmace^e, and the nut-yielding families as Juglan- 
daceae and Fagaceae. On the other hand, certain families 
come prolninently into this list that are absent from the 
other, as Crucifer^, Chenopodiaceae, Umbelliferae, Labiatae, 
Composite. The fruits and the vegetables represent unlike 
parts of the plant kingdom, showing that there is a real 
divergence between pomiculture and olericulture. 

Group I. The Heebage Vegetables 

in which the leaves and growing parts are eaten. 
Agaricacese, Mushroom Family. 

Mushroom, Agaricus campestris. 
Graminese, Grass Family. 

Bamboo, Phyllostachys pultescens, and others. 

Co-ba, hydropyrum, Zizania latifoUa. 



4 



The Subject 



Liliacese, Lily Family. 

Asparagus, Asparagus officinalis. 

Chive, chives, Alliiun Schoenoprasum. 
TridacecT, Iris Family, 

Saffron, Crocus satirus. 
Morace^e, Mulberry Family. 

Hop (5'oung shoots), HumiiJus Lupulus. 
l*olygonace£e, Buckwheat Family. 

Ehubarb, pie-plant, Rheum Rhaponticnm. 

Spinach dock, herb patience, Rumex Patientia. 

Spinach dock (of Chinese), Runie.r clcntatus. 

Sorrel, Rumex Acetosa. 

French sorrel, Rumex scutatus. 
Chenopodiacejp, Goosefoot Family. 

Spinach, tSpinacia oleracea. 

Orach, Atriplex hortensis. 

Mercury, Good King Henry, Chenopodium Bonus-Henricus. 
Elite, Chenopoditirn capitatum. 

Lamb's quarters, goosefoot, pigweed, Chenopodium alhum 

(taken in the fields, scarcely cultivated). 
Eeet, beet-root. Beta vulgaris (see also Group II). 
Chard, Beta rulgaris var. Cicla. 

Quinoa, ^Chenopodium Quinoa (see also Group III). 
Amaranthaceie, Amaranth Family. 

Amaranth, Amarantlius gangeticus, and A. Blitum (A. ole- 
raceus). Other species are collected for greens. 
Phytolaccacese, Pokeweed Family. 

Scoke, Phytolacca amcricana, P. esculcnta. 
Aizoacete, Carpetweed Family. 

New Zealand spinach, Tctragonia expansa. 

Ice-plant, Mescml)ri/anthemum cr y stall in um. 
Portulacace.T, Purslane Family. 

Purslane, Portulaca oleracea. 

Winter purslane, Montia perfoliata. 
EasellaceiP, Madeira-vine Family. 

Easella, Malabar nightshade. Basella rubra and B. alba. 

Madeira- vine, Bousslngaultia daselloides. 



Inventory 



5 



Cruciferge, Mustard Family. 

Cabbage, Brassica oleracea var. capitata. 
Cauliflower, broccoli, Brassica oleracea var. hotrytis. 
Brussels sprouts, Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera. 
Kale, Brassica oleracea vars. acephala and ramosa. 
Kohlrabi, Brassica caulo-rapa. 
Pe-tsai, Brassica pekinensis. 

Mustard, Brassica alha, B. nigra, B. juncea, B. japonica, 

B. rugosa, and others. 
Water-cress, Roripa Nasturtium-aquaticum. 
Tropical cress, Roripa indica. 
Cress, Lepidium sativum. 

Upland cress, Barl)area vulgaris and B. verna. 

Sea-kale, Crambe maritima. 

Rocket-salad, Eruca sativa. 

Turkish or oriental rocket, Bunias orientalis. 

Scurvy-grass, Cochlearia officinalis. 

Shepherd's purse, Capsella Bursa-pastoris. 
Rosaceae, Rose Family. 

Burnet, Sanguisorha minor. 
Tropseolaceae, Tropseolum Family. 

Indian cress, TropcBolum minus and T. majus. 
Tiliacese, Linden Family. 

Jew's mallow, edible jute, Corchorus oHtorius. 
Malvaceae, Mallow Family. 

Roselle, EiMscus Sahdariffa. 
Araliacese, Ginseng Family. 

Udo, Aralia cordata. 
rmbelliferse. Parsley Family. 

Celery, Apium graveolens. 

Parsley, Petroselinum hortense. 

Lovage, Levisticum officinale. 

Myrrh, sweet cicely, Myrrhis odorata. 

Chervil, Anthriscus Cerefolium. 

Angelica, Archangelica officinalis. 

Fennel, Fceniculum vulgare and botanical varieties. 



6 



The Subject 



Alexanders, Smyrnium Olnstrum. 

Samphire, Crithmum maritimum. 

Mitsuba (of Japan), Cryptotcenia canaiensis. 
Convolvulaceje, Morning-glory Family. 

Kan-kun, young-tsai, Ipomoea reptans. 

Alanga, moonflower (calyces), Calonyction aculcatum. 
Labiatse, Mint Family. 

ISage, Salvia offlcinalis. 

Clary, Salvia Sclarea. 

Hyssop, Myssopus officinalis. 

Thyme, Thymus vulgaris and T. Serpyllum. 

Lavender, Lavandula vera and L. Spica. 

Eosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis. 

Horehound, MarruMuin vulgare. 

Mint, Mentha citrata, M. rotundifolia. 

Peppermint, Mentha piperita. 

Spearmint, Mentha spicata. 

Pennyroyal, Mentha Pulegium. 

Basil, Ocimum Basilicum, O. suave, and O. minimum. 
Balm, Melissa officinalis. 

Marjoram, Origanum Majorana, O. vulgare, and O. Onites. 

Savory, summer, Satureia hortensis. 

Savory, winter, Satureia montana. 

Catnip, Nepeta Cataria. 
Valerianaceje, Valerian Family. 

Corn-salad, fetticns. Talcrianella Locusfa. 

Italian corn-salad, Talerianella eriocarpa. 

African valerian, Fedia Cornucopiw. 
Compositse, Composite or Sunflower Family. 

Lettuce, Lactuca sativa and botanical varieties. 

Chicory, witloof, Cichorium Intyhus (see also Group II). 

Endive, Cichorium Endivia. 

Artichoke, Cynara Scolymus. 

Cardoon, Cynara Cardunculus. 

Pot marigold, Calendula officinalis. 

Chrysanthemum, Chrysanthemum coronarium. 

Costmary, Chrysanthemum Balsamita. 



Inventory 



Wormwood, Artemisia AhsintJiium and A. pontica. 

Mug wort, Artemisia vulgaris. 

Southernwood, Artemisia Ahrotanum. 

Tarragon, Artemisia Dracunculus. 

Para cress, Spilanthes oleracea. 

Dandelion, Taraxacum officinale. 

Tansy, Tanacetum vulgare. 

Group II. The Eoot Vegetables 
in which certain underground parts are eaten. 

Alismacese, Water-Plantain Family. 

Arrow-head, Sagittaria sagittifolia. 
Cyperaceje, Sedge Family. 

Water-chestnut (of the Orient), Eleocharis dulcis. 

Chufa, Cyperus esculentus. 
Aracese, Arum Family. 

Culcas, Egyptian taro, Colocasia antiquorum. 

Taro, Colocasia esculenta. 

Yautia, malanga, tanier, Xanthosoma s a git ti folium. 

Konjac, koniakum, mo-yii, Amorpho phallus Konjac. 
Zingiberaceoe, Ginger Family. 

Ginger, Zingiber officinale. 
Cannacese, Canna Family. 

Canna, Queensland arrow-root, Canna edulis. 

Arrowroot, Maranta arundinacea. 

White topinambour, topee-tamboo, Calathea Alluia. 
Liliaceie, Lily Family. 

Onion, Allium Cepa. 

Welsh onion. Allium fistulosum. 

Portuguese onion. Allium lusitanicum. 

Shallot, Allium ascalonicum. 

Garlic, Allium sativum. 

Rocambole, Allium Scorodoprasu/m. 

Leek, Allium Porrum. 

Lily, Lilium species. 



8 



The Sulject 



Dioscoreacem?. Yam Family. 

Yam (true I. Dio.'icorea Batatas, D. aJata, and others. 
Air potato. D. hulbifera (tubers mostly aerial). 

Clienopocliacete. Goosefoot Family. 

Beet, beet-roor. maii^rel. Beta vulgaris (see also Group I). 

Olluco. UUiiCus tuherosus. 
Xymplia?aceie. Water-lily Family. 

Water-lily root, yelumho nucifera. 
Cruciferre. Mustard Family. 

liaclish. Raphanus sativiis and botanical varieties. 

Turnip. Brassica Rapa. 

Paitaliaga. Brassica campestris var. napo-hrassica. 
Tuberous-rooted mustard. Brassica napiformis. 
Horse-radish. Annoracia ru.^ticana. 
Legtiminoste, Ptilse or Pea Family. 
Groundnut. Apios tuherosa. 

Goa bean (tuberous roots), Psophocarpus tetragonolohus 
(see also Group III). 

Yam-bean (tuberous roots). Pachurhi.zus erosus and P. 
tuljrrosus I see also Group III). 

Kudzu, Pueraria liirsuta. 
Oxalidaceip. Wood-sorrel Family. 

Oka, Oxalic crcnata. 
Euphorbiacere. Spurge Family. 

Cassava, ManiTiot utilis-s-ima. 
Tropieolace:e. TruiJceolum Family. 

Capucin. Tropaolum tiiljerosum. 
Onagracece Evening Primrose Family. 

Evening primrose. not h era hiennis. 
rmbelliferie. Parsley Family. 

Parsnip, Pa>^tin'i<:a sativa. 

Carrot. Dauciis Carota. 

Skirret, Siu,/i si-^-anc/ti. 

Tuberous chervil. Clef mphiiUum lunosum. 
Celeriac. Apiurri grareoltus var. rapaceiim. 
Aracacha, Peruvian parsnip, Arracacia xantliorrliiza. 



Inventory 



9 



Convolvulacete, Morning-glory Family. 

Sweet potato, yam (erroneously), Ipomosa Batatas. 
Labiate, Mint Family. 

Chorogi, Japanese or Cliinese artichoke, Stachys Sieboldii. 

Innala, Plectranthus tuherosus. 
Solanaceie, Nightshade Family. 

Potato, Solanum tuherosum. 
MartyniacecT, Martynia Family. 

Craniolaria, Creole scorzonera, CranioJaria annua. 
Campanulacea?, Bluebell Family. 

Rampion, Campanula Rapunculus. 
Composite^, Composite or Sunflower Family. 

Salsify, oyster plant, vegetable- oyster, Tragopogon porrU 
folius. 

Spanish salsify, Scolijmus hispanicus. 
Black salsify, Scorzonera hispanica. 
French scorzonera, Picridiuui nilgare. 
' Girasole (Jerusalem artichoke), HeUanthus tuhcrosus. 
Chicory, CicJwriuni Intyhus (see also Group I). 
Gobo, Arctium Lappa. 
Elecampane, Inula Helenium. 

Group III. The Fruit Vegetables 
in which the fruits or seeds, or both, are eaten. 

Graminefe, Grass Family. 

Maize, sweet corn, Zea Mays var. rugosa. 
ChenopocUacete, Goosefoot Family. 

Quinoa, Chenopodium Quinoa (see also Group I). 
Ranunculaceie, Crowfoot Family. 

Fennel flower, JS'igeUa sativa. 
Cruciferae, Mustard Family. 

Rat-tailed radish, RapJianus sativus var. caudatus. 
Leguminos£e, Pulse or Pea Family. 

Bean, kidney bean, haricot, PJiaseoIus vulgaris. 

Scarlet runner bean, Phaseolus muUiflorus. 

Sieva bean, civet bean, Phaseolus lunatus. 



10 



The Suhject 



Lima bean, Phaseoliis lunatus var, macrocarpus. 

Tepary bean, Phaseolus acutifolius. 

Mung bean, Phaseolus aureus. 

Urd bean, Phaseolus Mungo. 

Adzuki bean, Phaseolus angularis. 

Moth bean, Phaseolus aconitifolius. 

Metcalfe bean, Phaseolus Metcalfei. 

Kice bean, Phaseolus calcaratus. 

Pea, Pisum sativum. 

Broad bean, Ticia Fata. 

Peanut, goober (underground fruits), Arachis hypogwa. 

Lentil, Lens esculenta. 

Cowpea, Tigna sinensis. 

Catjang, Tigna Catjang. 

Asparagus bean, Tigna sesquipedalis. 

Soybean, Glycine Soja. 

Chick-pea, garbanzo, C/ccr arietinum. 

Hyacinth bean, Dolichos LaJjlal). 

Madras gram, Dolichos hi/iorus. 

Chickling vetch, gesse, Lathyrus sativus. 

Jack-bean, Canavalia ensiformis, and probably others. 

Ground-pea (of Africa), Kcrstingiclla geocarpa (kandela) 

and Toanclzeia sul)tcra)inca (vandzon). 
Goa bean, asparagus pea (edible pods), Psophocarpus 

tetragonolol)us (see also Group II). 
Pigeon-pea, Cajanus indicus. 

Yam-bean (edible pods) , Pacliyrhi::us erosus and P. tuiero- 
sus (see also Group II). 

Winged pea, Lotus Tetragonolohus. 

Velvet bean, BtizoloMum species. 

Guar, cluster bean, Cyamopsis psoraloides. 
Malvace», Mallow Family. 

Okra, gumbo, Hilnscus esculenfus. 
Trapacei^e (or Onagracefv) , Trapa Family. 

Water caltrop, water chestnut (of Europeans), Trapa 
natans. 

Singhara nut, Trapa hispinosa. 



Inventory 



11 



Umbelliferse, Parsley Family. 

Coriander, Coriandrum sativum. 

Caraway, Carum Carvi. 

Dill, Anetlium graveolens. 

Cumin, Cuminmn Cyminum. 
Solanacese, Nightshade Family. 

Tomato, Li/copersicon escidentum and L. pimpinellifoHum. 

Tree tomato, Cyphomandra hetacea. 

Red pepper, chilli, cayenne pepper, Capsicum annuum and 
C. frutescens. 

Husk tomato, ground cherry, PhysaUs pultescens, P. peru- 
viana and P. ixocarpa. 
Pepino, Solanum muricatum. 

Morelle, garden huckleberry, wonderberry, Solamim 
nigrum . 

Other solanums yield comestible fruits. 
Martyniacej3e, Martynia Family. 

Martynia, unicorn plant, Proltoscidea louisiana. 
Cucurbitacese, Gourd or Melon Family. 

Cucumber, Cucuniis sativus. 

Gherkin, Cuciimis Anguria. 

Mandera cucumber, Cucumis Sacleuxii. 

Melon, dudaim, Cucumis 2Ielo and botanical varieties. 

Watermelon, Citrullus vulgaris. 

Squash, pumpkin, vegetable marrow, Cucurhita Pepo, C. 

maxima, and C. moschata. 
Siam or Malabar gourd, Cucurhita flcifolia. 
Wax gourd, white melon, ash pumpkin, Benincasa hispida. 
Calabash gourd, Lagenaria leucantha. 
Cassabanana, melocoton, Sicana odorifera. 
LufCa, Luff a cylindrica and L. acutangula. 
Chayote, christophine, SecUium edule. 
Balsam apple, Momordica Balsa mina. 
Balsam pear, Momordica Charantia. 
Snake gourd, Trichosantlies Anguina. 
Pepino de comer, Cyclantliera pedata. 



12 



The Subject 



This inventory contains all the leading vegetable-garden 
plants of the world, and a good number of those of minor 
importance. It suggests the variet}' and wealth of the 
field in plant materials. It would run into man}' hun- 
dreds more if a complete list were attempted. In 1889, 
Sturtevant (Agric. Sci. iii: 174-8) classified 1,070 species 
of cultivated food plants, and added that his notes include 
4,233 species of edible plants in 1,353 genera and ITO fam- 
ilies.* These plants comprise all classes, — grains, fruits, 
vegetables and others. ITndoubtedly these numbers could 
now be much increased. 

In the foregoing lists are 247 entries, of which 114 are 
leaf vegetables, 59 root vegetables, and 74 fruit vegetables. 
It displays a fascinating field for labor and study. Here 
are seeds of unimagined forms, oddities in germination, 
growths to fix the attention, flowers and fruits represent- 
ing the vast range of the vegetable kingdom, products in 
which one may take a personal pride. The number of 
domesticated forms is sumless, and yet the opportunity for 
plant-breeding is without end. "Wlio knows the fruits of 
even the common vegetables? Who can describe accu- 
rately even one of the plants, as the botanist would de- 
scribe it if he had his material properly preserved before 
him? Where are the herbaria and the museums in which 
the common things, to say nothing of the uncommon ones, 
are adequately collected? Plant-growing is so commer- 
cialized that we are tempted to give most of our atten- 
tion to the mechanical and business aspects of the subject, 
losing our skill as plantsmen. But whatever the develop- 



*See also the recent extensive volume issued by the X. Y. Agric. Ex- 
per. Station (Geneva), called '"Sturtevant's Notes on Edible Plants." 



The Affection for the Work 



13 



ment of any one of these industries, we must remember that 
the starting-point is the seed, and that the horticulturist 
must ever renew his effort to get back to the plant. This 
effort is not to be conceived as an impersonal task yielding 
results for commerce and science, but as an ardent affection. 

This affection runs not only to the growing of the plants 
and to the joy of gardening, but also to the appreciation 
of the good quality that one gets directly from fresh 
vegetables of merit. It is good to know the plants on 
which these products grow. As millions of people do not 
have gardens, so are they unaware of the low quality of 
much of the commercial produce as compared with things 
well gTown in due season. Most persons, depending on 
the market, do not know what a superlative watermelon 
is like. Even such apparently indestructible things as 
cucumbers have a crispness and delicacy when taken 
directly from the vine at proper maturity that are lost to 
the store-window supply. Every vegetable naturally loses 
something of itself in the process from field to consumer. 
Wlien to this is added the depreciation by storage, careless 
exposure and rough handling, one cannot expect to receive 
the full odor and the characteristic delicacies that belong 
to the product in nature. We must also remember the 
long distances over which much of the produce must be 
transported, and the necessity to pick the produce before 
it is really fit, to meet the popular desire to have vegetables 
out of season and when we ought not to want them. There 
is a time and place for everything, vegetables with the rest. 
Modern methods of marketing, storing and handling have 
facilitated transactions, and they have also done very much 
to safeguard the produce itself and to deliver it to the cus- 



14 



The Subject 



tomer in good condition ; but the vegetable well cbosen and 
well grown and fresh from the garden is nevertheless the 
proper standard of excellence. It is a surpassing satisfac- 
tion when the householder may go to her own garden 
rather than to the store for her lettuce, onions, tomatoes, 
beets, peas, cabbage, melons, and other things good to see 
and to eat, and to have them in generous supply. 

Yet many vegetable-growers are not directly concerned 
with the table supply and the general home interest but 
with the raising of produce for market. Of this range 
there are two t3^pes — market-gardening and truck-growing. 
The former is the growing of a wide or general range of 
vegetables- by intensive methods near the city, so near that 
the producer may perhaps drive to the market. The latter 
(trucking) is the growing of a few specialties on cheaper 
land by more extensive methods at some distance (often 
a great distance) from the cities, depending on the long 
haul by water or rail; of this kind is the growing of large 
areas in spinach, watermelons, cabbage, kale, potatoes. 
These distinctions in the business of vegetable-growing 
were made in the Eleventh Census (Bull. 41, by J. H. 
Hale; Census of 1890). They are now accepted by 
American writers.* Yet even in these important com- 
mercial practices, now bulking so large in the produce- 
yield of the country, the relation with the plant is tlie 
first consideration. 

Having now been introduced to our subject, we may be- 
gin at once to grow the plants. 



*As. for example, R. L. Watts. Vegetable Gardening, copj'-righted 1912; 
L. C. Corbett, Garden Farming, 1913; J. W. Lloyd, Productive Vegetable 
Growing, 1914; J. G. Boyd, Vegetable Growing, 1917. 



THE LABORATORY 

Books of practice are now used, in colleges and schools as 
well as directly" by growers. The first requisite in the teaching 
of students In the biological sciences is drill in identification 
and observation. The student who cannot see what he looks 
at and accurately describe it, is not ready for lectures or for 
investigation. It is hoped that vegetable-gardening may be 
made a means of exact education in natural science, equivalent 
in its processes with other phases of botany. The student 
should know the species in the main groups of oleraceous 
plants. To this end, descriptions of many plants are inserted 
in the present volume. 

The identification and description exercise may well be 
extended to other species and also to the differing horticultural 
varieties. All this should be a good preparation for the practi- 
cal applications, adding to one's proficiency in vegetable-grow- 
ing as well as opening a world of resources in the objects in 
nature. To detect and recognize insects and their eggs, plant 
diseases, the effects of treatments and conditions on the welfare 
of the plants, requires sharp eyes that are sure of v>'hat they see. 

The plants themselves, and their many parts, are the pri- 
mary resource in laboratory work in any branch of horticul- 
ture. The growing plants are naturally to be preferred, but they 
cannot always be had in sufficient quantity and variety, and 
they soon wilt and lose their significance; a wide range of 
fairly permanent subjects should be before the student for 
comparison whatever the season of the year, comprising good 
herbarium material (not merely leaves), seeds, and accurate 
pictures of the produce if actual specimens cannot be had. 
The verification should always extend, however, to the living 
plants themselves and their products. Whatever the method, 
the object is to develop the keen and practiced eye, as well as 
accurate appreciation of record and citation. 

The study of the plants does not restrict itself to identifica- 
tion of the kinds and to their taxonomic treatment, although 

(15) 



16 



The Subject 



these are the phases specially significant to the beginning stu- 
dent, for he must first know his materials. The physiology 
and genetics, using these terms in the broadest sense, are sub- 
jects of the highest importance; the time must soon come 
when the accumulated knowledge must be assembled and ably 
digested. 

Be it said at the beginning that the nomenclature of the 
botanical varieties or races of garden vegetables lies yet in an 
uncertain state. The search of literature for the oldest ten- 
able trinomial designations has not been made, as it has been 
made for the names of wild plants. The search will be ex- 
ceedingly complex, and it will need the services of a trained 
taxonomist. What classes of literature should be admitted 
as competent in such inquiries is a subject for discussion before 
the search itself is undertaken. This field of taxonomy is 
undeveloped. In the meantime, the writer presents diagnoses 
of the varieties under the best names he knows, hoping to 
make a fuller survey of the subject on another occasion. 

The varieties under consideration in these technical appen- 
dices are mostly the classes or forms presenting such botanical 
differences that they are capable of preservation and detection 
on the herbarium sheet. The writer has no sympathy with 
the practice of giving Latin botanical names to the usual 
numerous horticultural varieties. 

The technical descriptions in this book are all drawn directly 
from the cultivated plants themselves, and in no case are they 
copied. This may account for certain discrepancies in compari- 
son with standard botanical characterizations. In this volume 
we are concerned with the cultigen (the species or the plant 
of a garden or agricultural ancestry). 

It will be noticed that most of the species are credited to 
Linnseus (Linn. Sp. PI.). With his Species Plantarum, 1753, 
begins the modern naming of plants, with the use of the bino- 
mial system. This system comprises the genus and the species, 
the generic name standing first and the specific name second : 
all onions and their kin are Allium ; the species are A. sativum 



Practicurns 



17 



(sativus is Latiu for planted " or " cultivated A. fistulosiim, 
A. Cepa, and others. 

The naming of the species and the botanical forms of plants 
follows a system characterized by great precision and regu- 
larity. It is well for the student to understand the main ele- 
ments and practices in it, for he is not only enabled to under- 
stand but he is trained in accuracy and carefulness of record 
and reference. 

For the most part, English measurements are used in the 
descriptions. In the minuter weights and sizes, however, 
metric denominations must, be employed. The lowest denomi- 
nation in avoirdupois weight is one grain, but this denomina- 
tion is 50 times too heavy to weigh a mustard seed. The 
gfain in apothecaries' or troy weights is still heavier, for there 
are only 5,760 grains in 1 lb., whereas in avoirdupois weight 
the pound is divided into 7.000 grains. Therefore, the milli- 
gram (mg.) is used for the weighing of seeds. A commer- 
cially dry seed of black mustard weighs about 1 mg. (say ly^ 
mg.) ; so does a small-sized dry turnip seed, w^hile a large turnip 
seed weighs about 2 mg. There are 1,000 mg. in 1 gram. The 
pictures of the seeds in this book are mostly enlarged. The flat 
or rectilinear dimensions are indicated by the figure in paren- 
thesis : (X4) means that the picture is 4 times broader and 
longer than the seed ; ( x i/4 ) that the picture is only one- 
quarter as large as the natural object. Seeds and seedlings 
are likely to differ between marked garden varieties or races. 

THE TLAX OF THE BOOK 

The arrangement of the book may now be explained. After 
the introductory chapter, defining the subject-field, the dif- 
ferent vegetables are taken up in groups. They are discussed 
in groups so that related crops may be considered together, 
avoiding considerable repetition of advice and contributing to 
a clearer understanding of the subject. Thus, all melons, 
cucumbers, squashes, are closely related in cultural require- 



18 



The Subject 



ments, as are the onions, leek and garlic, as well as cabbage, 
kale, briissels si)rdnts, cauliflower. 

The main principles or considerations are printed in italic 
ti/pe at the beginning. Then follows in small type the infor- 
mation that should be available for ready reference, as dis- 
tances at which plants are to stand, quantity of seed or num- 
ber of plants to the acre, time of sowing or planting, yields, 
together with very brief statements of the most important dis- 
eases and insects. The condensed paragraphs on the maladies 
and pests are prepared specially for this edition of the book, 
all on a uniform pattern, by professors in the New York State 
College of Agriculture at Cornell rniversity — H. W. Dye for 
the diseases, C. R. Crosby and M. D. Leonard for the insects. 

Following the preliminary matter is the regular reading 
discussion of the crop. Thereafter is the technical descrip- 
tion and record of the plant itself, stated in botanical lan- 
guage for accuracy. The Latin names of the plants, as well as 
of the insects and the organisms that produce the disease con- 
ditions, are always given, for in these days the technical names 
are a necessary part of our knowledge. These names have 
much significance and they stand for exact conceptions. Some- 
thing of the history of our knowledge of the plants is sug- 
gested in the synonymy and the records. The records in the 
text give the names added significance. Students should early 
learn to think in terms of these names, for their thinking is 
then straighter. These good names are an index of an edu- 
cated understanding of the subject. 

After the chapters on the oleraceous crops, are parts that 
discuss the general in-actices — tillacre, fertilizing, marketing, 
storing, home-gardening, and others. 

In his own interest the author should state that these proofs 
are completed on a sea voyage, without means of reference and 
verification ; but he trusts that serious errors will not arise. 



CHAPTER II 



PERENNIAL CROPS 



Asparagus 
Rliubarb 
Artichoke 
Girasole 



Sea-Kale 

Dock and sorrel 

Udo 



The management of perennial crops differs from that 
of other' vegetable-gardening crops in the fact that they 
are more or less permanent occupants of the ground, and 
therefore must be given an area to themselves where they 
ivill not interfere with the customary plowing and tilling; 
in the fact that the chief tillage and care are required early 
and late in the season; and also because the fertilizing is 
secured {after the initial preparation of the land) chiefly 
by surface dressings in spring and autumn. It is advisable, 
therefore, for cultural reasons, to place these vegetables 
in a group by themselves, although otherwise they have 
little in common. 

The reader must distinguish between perennial crops 
and perennial plants. Many perennial plants are treated 
as annuals in cultivation, as tomato, red pepper, potato, 
scarlet runner bean, horse-radish, dandelion. On the 
other hand, some of the perennial crops profit by frequent 
renewal, as the artichoke. But while the demarca- 
tion is indefinite, the gardener readily understands it. 



(19) 



20 



Perennial Crops 



ASPARAGUS 

Asparagus is groivn for tlie strong soft young sJioots 
arising in spring; tliese shoots maij he utilized in their^ 
natural state (green), or blanch eel hy hilling luith earth. 
A deep, rich , fertile, moist, cool soil, warm exposure, thor- 
ough preparation of the land, heavy manuring, thorough 
tillage in late fall and early spring, are general requisites 
of asparagus culture. The plants should he allowed to 
hecome ivell established before a crop is cut, and the cut- 
ting of the plants should cease in early summer to allow 
tliem opportunity to grow and to store up energy for the 
folio icing year. The tops are mown in late fall, and the 
land is top-dressed icith manure before winter sets in. 
Asparagus is grown for its young shoots, and the quality 
is determined by the succulence of these shoots. A good 
plantation should last ten years and more, at least at the 
Xorth. Propagated by seeds. Practices in the growing of 
asparagus vary icidely. 

In small gardens, asparagus may be set IS in. apart, in rows 
as close as 3 ft. : at these disraiices. about 9600 plants are 
required to a full acre. In general field culture for green 
asparagus, the rows are usually farther apart to allow of 
easier tillage and often 2 ft. in the row. Some growers prefer 
to plant as wide as 3 by 4 ft., or, 3600 plants. For the growing 
of blanched asparagus, the rows may be as much as 8 ft. 
(6 to 8 ft.) and 18 or 20 in. in the row. when about 3600 plants 
are required to the acre. Seeds are usually sown thickly in 
rows, and the plants thinned to 3 or 4 in. ; 4 or 5 lbs. of seeds 
are usually sown to the acre. When one year old. the plants 
are set in permanent quarters, and the following year the first 
cutting of asparagus may be made. About 2000 (ISOO to 3000) 
dozen bunches (averaging 8 to 12 stalks) is a fair yield to the 



Asparagus 



21 



acre on established plantations. An asparagus bed or field 
should yield ^Yell for 10 to 20 years. 

Rust (Puccinia asparagi). — Reddish or black pustules are 
produced on the stems and branches of the plant, killing them 
prematurely. Control: No plants should be permitted to 
mature during the cutting season and all diseased plants 
should be cut and burned in the fall. Spraying with bordeaux 
mixture to which some sticker has been added will aid in 
control. Certain resistant strains have been developed, espe- 
cially by the United States Department of Agriculture. These 
should be used in new plantings. 

Beetle {Grioceris asparagi). — A gray larva with black head, 
about in. long, feeding on the young shoots in spring and 
weakening the plant for the following year. The beetle is 
about 1/4 in- long with prominent orange and black pattern 
on back, passing the winter in piles of rubbish and under 
bark ; eggs are laid in early spring, on end in a line on young 
growths of asparagus ; they hatch in 3 to 8 days and the young 
larvae begin to feed. Control: Keep the crop cut clean and 
starve them out; leave a row or two of asparagus plants on 
which to poison the larvip, using arsenate of lead paste, 1 lb. in 
20 gals, water ; spray the plantation after cutting season is past ; 
let poultry run in the asparagus ; clean up rubbish in the fall. 

Twelve- SPOTTED asparagus beetle (Crioceris duodecimpunc- 
tata). — About the size of the common asparagus beetle, red- 
dish orange in color with twelve round black spots on the wing 
covers. The beetles appear in spring along with the common 
asparagus beetle and gnaw holes in the tender shoots. The 
oval eggs are attached by the side, singly, to the leaves. The 
young grubs enter the berries above; they feed on the seeds, 
migrating from berry to berry until mature. Pupation takes 
place in the ground. The insect hibernates as a beetle in dry 
sheltered places. Control: As the larvae feed inside the berries 
they cannot be poisoned, but the adults may be destroyed by 
the same measures as recommended for the common asparagus 
beetle. 



22 



Perennial Crops 



Asparagus miner (Agromyza simplex). — A small maggot 
that burrows under tlie epidermis of the asparagus stalk near 
the ground, sometimes girdling it and causing the stalk to turn 
yellowish and die prematurely. The parent insect is a small 
metallic black fly about 1/6 in. long. It appears in New 
York in May and the female inserts her eggs under the 
epidermis near the ground. A second brood of flies appears 
the latter part of July. The insects hibernate as puparia in 
the old stalks at or below the surface. Control: This insect 
causes little injury in beds being cut, but is sometimes injuri- 
ous in new beds. No satisfactory method of controlling this 
pest in commercial plantings is known. 

Asparagus is a gross feeder. Land can scarcely be 
too rich. If the land is originally hard and coarse it 
should be prepared a year or two in advance by the raising 
of some thoroughly tilled crop as potatoes and with this 
crop as much manure as possible should have been used. 
The asparagus plantation should be made for long use. 
Therefore it is well to give careful attention to the soil 
and to the choice of a place that can be permanently set 
aside for the purpose. 

In the home garden, asparagus should be in rows at 
one side of the plantation, so that it will not interfere 
with the plowing of the garden area. It usually looks best 
at the farther side of the garden, where its beautiful herb- 
age makes a background border in summer and fall. The 
old idea was to have asparagus " beds." The new idea 
is to plant asparagus in rows as one would plant rhubarb 
or corn, and to till it with horse tools, if possible, rather 
than with hoes and finger weeders. For the ordinary fam- 
ily, one row alongside the garden, 75 to 100 feet long, may 
be expected to furnish a sufficient supply. 



Asparagus 23 



As a field crop, it is ordinarily grown in the best and 
richest soil available. The permanency of the plantation 
will depend largely on the original quality of the land, 
the preparation of it, good drainage, the method of plant- 
ing, and particularly on the subsequent care and fertiliz- 
ing of the plantation, and in taking care not to cut or 
harvest it over too long a period. It is the aim to secure 
large broad crowns. After a dozen years, however, more 
or less, the size of shoots usually decreases and a new 
plantation will probably give better results in a good mar- 
ketable product. 

Distances; planting. 

Asparagus may be either green or blanched. The dif- 
ference lies wholly in the treatment. Naturally the shoots 
are green when they appear above the surface. By hilling 
over the row with earth, the shoots may be cut through 
the earth at the side of the ridge before they break out 
and become green. For such work, the earth should be of 
a sandy or loamy nature, so that it can be thrown against 
the row with a banking plow (or a shovel in small planta- 
tions) ; the rows are set as much as 6 feet apart, and often 
8 or 10 feet. G-reen asparagus is better in quality. 

The roots of asparagus should be in moist cool earth, 
with opportunity to forage as far as they will. The roots 
run horizontally rather than perpendicularly. It is well, 
therefore, to place the rows not closer than 4 feet. The 
plants (previously grown from seeds) should be set deep. 
The custom is to subsoil the land, if it is hard beneath 
the surface, plowing in a heavy coating of well-rotted 
manure if necessary. The plants are then set in furrows 



\ 



24 Perennial Crops 



6 to 10 inches deep. The crown is covered with loose earth 
or old compost to the depth of 2 or 3 inches. As the plants 
grow, the trench is gradually filled. If the trench is filled 
cit first, the young plants may not have sufficient strength 
to push through the earth. In a commercial plantation, 
this filling may be performed by the subsequent tillage. 
Sometimes the furrows are partially filled by running a 
light harrow over the ground. The plants are usually set 
in spring, and by the succeeding autumn the furrows 
should have been filled. The plants should be one-year- 
old seedlings; two- or three-year-old plants give less sat- 
isfactory results. 

The distance apart varies greatly, depending on the price 
and kind of land, the implements to be used in tillage, 
whether the rows are to be banked, and the personal pref- 
erence of the grower. In garden phmtations the rows may 
be as close as 3 feet. Usually 4 and 5 feet are allowed 
between the rows, and a greater distance if the shoots are 
to be blanched. In the rows, 18 to 24 inches is the«usual 
space, although persons desiring the "hill method'^ and 
very large shoots may plant as far as 3 or 3^ feet. 

Tillage and care. 

Since the crowns of asparagus are so far beneath the 
surface, it is possible to till the whole area with shallow- 
working tools late in autumn and early spring. It is essen- 
tial that this general tillage be given to keep the plan- 
tation free of weeds and to maintain the physical texture 
of the soil. In the growing season, little tillage can be 
given when the crop is being harvested, it is not prac- 



Asparagus 



25 



ticable to till to any extent ; and later in the season, when 
the tops are allowed to grow, the whole surface is occu- 
pied. Some growers disc the plantation just after the last 
cutting, if the land is hard and weedy; and the cultivator 
may then be used between the rows before the tops inter- 
fere. It is well to dress the plantation heavily in the fall 
with manure, to which one may add night soil, refuse salt 
or animal fertilizer, if these are available. It may be 
well, also, to make another dressing of more quickly avail- 
able fertilizer early in spring. It is very important that 
the plantation be given the best of surface tillage for the 
first year or two, to put it in perfect condition. When the 
plantation finally comes into full bearing, the asparagus 
appropriates so much of the plant-food and moisture that 
there is less annoyance from weeds. 

In spring the dressing may be cultivated under, or if it 
is too coarse for that purpose, the rougher parts may be 
forked off. After a thorough spring cultivation, it is well 
again to cover the bed with litter or manure to afford some 
nourishment, but particularly to conserve the moisture 
and to produce material for covering the tender shoots 
in case there is danger of frost. This, however, may be 
impossible in a large plantation; in such plantations the 
manure may be applied in spring, at the close of the cut- 
ting season, or before winter. Chemical fertilizers are now 
often used freely in place of some of the manure; but the 
humus content of the soil must be maintained. 

On land to be prepared for asparagus, 20 to 40 tons of 
manure to the acre are recommended by H. C. Thompson 
(Farmers' Bull. 829), if the soil is deficient in humus; 



26 



Perennial Crops 



if manure is not a-vailable, a green-manure crop may be 
plowed under. In preparation, "for an average asparagus 
soil 100 to 150 pounds of nitrate of soda, 500 to 1,000 
pounds of 16 per cent acid phosphate, and 150 to 300 
pounds of muriate of potash to the acre will give good 
results when applied in connection with manure or legumi- 
nous crops." After the plantation is established " a com- 
mon practice among market gardeners is to apply 20 to 
40 tons of manure to the acre broadcast over the bed dur- 
ing the autumn or winter.^' In addition, Thompson 
recommends a good complete fertilizer at the rate of 1,000 
to 1,500 pounds to the acre at the close of the cutting 
season. 

The energy of the crown and roots is supplied from the 
foliage that developed in the previous summer. Without a 
strong growth of top, one cannot expect a good growth 
of roots and a heavy yield the following year. The tops 
should be mown late in fall. Some persons allow these 
tops to lie on the ground as a winter protection. If, how- 
ever, the plants produce many berries, there will be so 
many seedling plants as to make trouble; in that case, it 
is better to burn the tops. It is also well to remove and 
burn them in order to allow a thorough tillage in autumn. 
The bed should then be given a dressing as already sug- 
gested, both to afford winter protection and to supply 
plant-food. 

The value of asparagus lies in its succulence and ten- 
derness, and these qualities are usually associated with 
large size of shoot. These attributes are secured by very 
rich soil and by thorough attention to good tillage, and 
destruction of beetles and rust. 



Asparagus 



27. 



The crop. 

The plants should grow two full years from planting in 
the field before shoots are cut closely, but a small cutting 
is often permissible the second year if the plantation is 
vigorous. It is also easy to injure the bed by cutting it 
too long a period each season. Whilst the crop is being 
harvested, however, every stalk should be removed, even 
though it is too small and poor for eating : the bed should 
be " cut clean/' Only in rare cases 
should the bed be cut after the 4th 
of July in the Northern States, and 
it is usually better to stop before this 
time. The third season the cutting is 
for a month or less ; subsequently it 
may run to six or even ten weeks. 
Thereafter the tops are allowed to 
grow as they will. 

It is customary to harvest aspara- 
gus by severing the shoots 3 or 4 
inches beneath the surface by means 
of a long knife (Fig. 1, adapted from 
Farmers' Bull. 829). There are spe- 
cial asparagus knives (Fig. 2), but 
any long butcher-knife will answer 
the purpose. It is important that 
this knife be inserted in an 
oblique direction so as not to in- 
jure the new shoots that are ris- 
ing from the crown. A little experience in the use of the 
knife will enable one to cut the shoots without injury to 
the succeeding growths. At the height of the season it 




A bunch of asparagus. 



28 



Perennial Crops 




may be necessary to cut every day; later two or three 
times a week may be sufficient. Some of the best growers 
advise the breaking of the asparagus shoots rather than 

cutting them. There is then 
no danger of injuring the 
crown, and the shoot will 
not break in the tough and 
stringy part and therefore 
the product is sure to be ten- 
der and crisp. This is no 
doubt the better method, but 
the formal demands of the 
market make it difficult to 
sell broken asparagus, not- 
withstanding its surer qual- 
ity. 

Asparagus is sold in 
bunches 4 or 5 inches in diameter, weighing something 
over 2 pounds and comprising 12 to 30 stalks. These 
bunches are tied with soft cord, raffia or tape, although 
some growers now use rubber bands. Usually the market 
requires that the butt end of the bunch be cut off 
square. An average bunch is 7 to 9 inches long. As- 
paragus " bunchers " — which are forms for holding the 
bunch and cord, and a knife for cutting the butts — can 
be had of dealers in gardeners' supplies (Fig. 2). If 
not marketed at once, the bunches may be stood in a 
shallow tray of clean water. The shoots should be graded 
as to size and quality, and they may be washed before 
bunching. 



2. Asparagus buncher; also knife 
or spud for cutting the plants in 
the field. 



Asparagus 



29 




Seeds of asparagus (X 5). 



Seedlings. 

One may purchase asparagus plants of dealers. It is usu- 
ally better, however, to grow one's own plants, particularly 

if one has a rich piece of land 
and can give it careful atten- 
tion. The seed is sown in drills 
15 to 18 inches apart (or farther 
asunder for horse tillage), and 
it is covered about an inch 
in depth. Germination is slow. 
The seeds may be soaked in warm water a day before 
planting. The plants should be thinned to stand 3 or 4 
inches in the row. Give 
frequent tillage throughout 
the season. The following 
spring these plants will be 
ready for setting in their 
permanent places. The 
seeds and the seedlings are 
seen in Figs. 3 and 4. 

Seedlings may be ex- 
pected to vary consider- 
ably ; it is essential to best 
results to use only care- 
fully selected seeds. In 
the selection, the most 
vigorous and productive 
plants should be marked 
and left for seed. Usually only part of the shoots are 
allowed to remain to each crown, to insure well-developed 




Young seedlings of asparagus, 
natural size.) 



(About 



30 



Perennial Crops 



seed, and often the shoot is topped and only the lower 
berries saved. The flowers of asparagus are usually im- 
perfect, and one male plant should be left close to every 
three or four female plants to make sure of pollination. 
When the berries are fully ripe, the seeds are rubbed 
or washed out and kept till spring, when they are 
sown as already explained; or, if 




5. Sterile or stamlnate flowers 

Qf asparagus. (Separate 6. Fertile or pistillate flower of aspara- 

flower X 3.) gus (X %)■ 



The pot method readily encourages the discarding of 
all unpromising seedlings in the transplanting. Male 
plants are considered to be more productive than the 
female or seed-bearing plants, but the sexes cannot be 
certainly distinguished until blossoms appear. Perhaps 
the inferiority of the fertile plants is due to the lessening 



Asparagus 



31 



of vigor by seed-bearing; when practicable it is well to 
remove the berries. Eventually the seedling will probably 
be carried to blossoming period before placing in the plan- 
tation ; further experience on this point is necessary. The 
sexes are distinguished in Figs. 5 and 6. 

Varieties. 

Eecognized varieties of asparagus are few, and as the 
plant is propagated only by seeds (which may not come 
true to name) the characteristics of the different named 
kinds are not likely to be clearly marked. The Colossal 
(Conover's Colossal, Argenteuil of the French) is a 
standard variety. Palmetto is much grown. Bonvalette 
Giant (an improved form of Palmetto), Columbian Mam- 
moth, Barr Mammoth, Dreer Eclipse, Giant Eeading, 
Moore Giant, are other good contemporaneous kinds. 
Improved strains bred by the United States Department 
of Agriculture are now attracting much attention, known 
as Washington and Martha Washington. 

The Asparagus Plant 

Asparagus: a genus of the Liliacese or Lily Family, of 
about 150 species, native in Europe, Asia and Africa, herba- 
ceous or woody, erect or climbing. Aside from the common 
edible asparagus, the genus contains the " smilax " of florists 
(not properly a smilax, however) and the so-called " asparagus 
ferns " of greenhouses. The species are devoid of ordinary 
green leaves, these organs being represented by small scales 
or spines and the green stems functioning as foliage. Even the 
broad leaf-like organs in the florists' smilax are branches, 
arising from the axils of leaf-scales. 

A. officinalis, Linn. var. aitilis, Linn. Sp, PI. 313. Garden 
Asparagus. Perennial much-branching dioecious herb with 
terete clear green glabrous slightly glaucous stems 4 to 10 ft. 



32 



Perennial Crops 



high: root a mass of long fleshy cord-like members spreading 
from the sides and bottom of a progressive rootstock: shoots 
arising from the crown in early spring, succulent but subse- 
quently decreasing in diameter, without ordinary foliage, com- 
prising the edible part of the plant; tops dying in autumn: 
leaves on young shoots triangular-cuspidate, iV to % in. long; 
on the branches represented by very small scarious scales, from 
the axils of which arise one but usually several short green 
terete cladodes or cladophylls (commonly regarded as leaves) 
IS to in. long and perhaps one elongated branch, the plumose 
cladodes and stems altogether constituting the foliage : flowers 
1 to 4 in the axils of the cladodes, on slender jointed pedicels ; 
male or sterile fls. yellowish green and conspicuous, nearly ^ 
in. long, bell-shaped, the perianth 6-toothed about one-third its 
depth, the stamens G and included, pistil present but abortive; 
female or fertile fls. (on separate plants) less conspicuous, 
one-half or less the length of the sterile fls., the pistil practi- 
cally filling the perianth and the 3 stigmas protruding: fr. a 
globular hanging red 3-celled berry, -is to % in. diameter, 
usually maturing several seeds, the remains of the 6 perianth- 
lobes appressed on its base; seeds large {^s in. or less diam.), 
rounded at the back and more or less angled or flattened 
toward the micropyle, black, without prominent surface marks, 
weighing 15 to 22 mg., retaining germinating power 5 years 
or more. — Native on coasts and sandy areas, Great Britain, 
Mediterranean region, to central Asia. The usual native form 
(var. maritimus, Linn.) is a short-branched plant more or 
less prostrate at the base. The var. altilis (Latin: large, fat, 
nourishing) has longer branches and the thick stout stem is 
erect from the base; known in cultivation and as an escape. 
It is a plant of ancient cultivation. 

RHUBARD OR PIE-PLAXT 

^5 a garden vegetable, rliuharh is grown for the large 
thich acid petioles or leaf -stalls, wliicli are used in spring 
for sauces and pies. The plant is perfectly hardy; it de- 



RhuharJ) 



33 



lights in a deep rich soil. Since its value depends on the 
succulence and size of the leaf-stalks, every care must he 
given that will contribute to leaf growth. It is an early 
spring crop; the land, therefore, should he quiclc, and the 
plants should have made a sturdy growth the previous year 
to have energy to start quicMy and vigorously. The top 
growth is completed by summer. A well-prepared and 
well-handled rliuharh plantation should last twenty years 
or more. Propagated by divisions of the root and by seed. 
It is essentially a northern crop. 

Year-old seedlings or divided roots are planted in the field 
usually 4 or 5 feet in autumn or spring, preferably in spring, 
requiring about 2,200 plants to tlie full acre. About 1,500 seeds 
are contained in an ounce, but 3 or 4 pounds of seed are rec- 
ommended for the raising of seedlings as rigorous thinning 
selection must be practised. An acre should yield 3,000 dozen 
bunches, in full bearing, the bunch usually comprising 3 to 6 
stalks, sometimes more if the stalks are small. 

Rhubaeb cueculio (Lixiis concavus) . — A black snout-beetle, 
% in. long, dusted with a yellowish covering which easily 
rubs off. The insect breeds in dock, sunflower and thistle, 
but the larvae are never found in rhubarb. The injury is 
caused by the punctures which the beetle makes in the petioles 
from which there exude glistening drops of gum. Control: 
Hand-picking; destroy all wild food-plants in the vicinity of 
rhubarb. 

The effort in the growing of rhubarb is to produce 
abundantly of large tender leaf -stalks and at the same time 
to fill the plant with energy for the crop of the succeed- 
ing year. The size of the leaf-stalks depends partly on 
the variety, but particularly on the soil and the tillage. 
There are only three or four popular varieties, of which 



34 



Perennial Crops 



the best known are Victoria, Linnaeus, and Mammoth 
Eed; bnt the old-fashioned unimproved rhubarb will often 
produce a better leaf-stalk when given high cultivation 
than the best strain of Victoria when grown under neglect. 
The plant should not be allowed to bloom (the flower- 
stalks being cut out as soon as they appear), 
unless it is desired to raise seed. 

Ehubarb is not particular as to soil, but 
it thrives best on land that is mellow and 
fertile to a considerable depth. Lands with 
a high subsoil or hardpan are to be avoided. 
The plantation should last for a number of 
years, and it is therefore important that 
the original preparation of land should be 
of the best. It should be heavily fertilized. 
There is little danger of adding too much 
stable manure, particularly if the soil is 
either very hard or very loose. If the land 
is not in good tilth, it is best to grow a 
preparatory crop, as potatoes or root-crop, 
and to use liberally of stable manure 
7. A bunch of in that year. If the land is not natu- 
''^^^y ^^^P' is -well to subsoil it just 
before the rhubarb is planted. It should 
always be well drained. 

The rows should be sufficiently spaced to allow of easy 
horse tillage, — not less than 4 or 5 feet for the strong- 
growing varieties. In the row the plants may be placed 
about 3 to 4 feet apart. Some growers place the rows as 
far apart as 6 feet, and the plants 3 feet in the row. 
It is a good plan to leave alleys at intervals in a rhubarb 




Bhubarh 



35 



field to allow the entry of wagons. In a single row in 
the home garden, the plants may be set every 2 feet. A 
dozen or two good plants should be sufficient for a family. 
, Good surface tillage, as for corn or potatoes, is all that 
is demanded. In autumn the bed should be given a 
heavy dressing of stable manure. This dressing serves the 
purposes of enriching the soil, preserving the texture of 
the surface, and affording a winter mulch and protection. 
Lands heavily mulched do not freeze so deep as those that 
are left bare, and the plants are likely to start earlier in 
the spring. This surface mulch may be removed early in 
the spring and a thorough tillage given the land; or if the 
land is in good tilth and free from weeds, it may be forked 
from the crowns and allowed to lie between the rows until 
the crop is harvested. Some growers hill up the rows in 
autumn by means of a plow and do not apply a mulch. 

The commercial rhubarb season is short. It rarely ex- . 
tends over more than two months. The leaves are pulled, 
and they separate readily at their insertion if pulled 
straight and not twisted or yanked. Only the largest and 
best leaves are harvested. The leaf-blades are at once 
trimmed off to prevent wilting or softening of the stalk. 
Other leaves are allowed to remain unless they are very 
numerous, in which case the larger part of them are pulled 
to allow the strength to go to the main ones. After the 
market season of rhubarb is past, the plants are allowed to 
grow as they will, and tillage is continued. A heavy crop 
of rhubarb in any year depends to a large extent on the 
strong leaf-growth of the year before. 

To renew rhubarb plantations, the roots are sometimes 
taken up, more or less divided and reset; but it is usually 



36 



Perennial Crops 



a better practice to trim the roots where they stand with 
the plow or the spade, breaking off the strong projecting 
parts. The purpose is to reduce the overcrowded mass of 
roots and to start new root growth. 

Propagation of rhubarb is by division of roots and by 
seeds. Ordinarily it is multiplied by means of division. 
The root may be cut into as many pieces as there are 
strong eyes, and as much as possible of the root is allowed 
to remain with each eye. These pieces are planted 3 or 
4 inches deep. These pieces of root are usually planted 
directly in the field, but they may be grown the first year 
in a nursery. The plants usually grow two years before a 
cutting is made, and they will not give a full crop until 
the third year. Ehubarb is readily grown from seeds, but 
this requires a year's more time and the seedlings are 
likely to vary. The seeds may be sown early in spring 



milder climates it may be planted in autumn. The seeds 
(properly fruits) of rhubarb, and seedlings, are seen in 
Figs. 8 and 9. 

By covering the plantation heavily in autumn so that 



8. Fruits (seeds) of rhubarb 
(X 1%). 




in drills 18 inches apart, or 
closer if the land is valuable, 
and the young plants are thinned 
to about 6 to 8 inches in the 
row. The plants are set in 
permanent positions the year 
following ; that is, when they are 
one year old. In the Northern 
States rhubarb is usually planted 
in spring whether from seed- 
lings or root-cuttings, but in 



Rhubarb 



37 



the ground does not freeze deep, and removing the cover- 
ing early in spring, it is sometimes possible to hasten the 
growth and get an earlier first yield. Sometimes barrels 
or boxes are put over the crown in autumn and banked 
with leaves or manure for the purpose (Fig. 212). The 
best results for the early market, however, are obtained by 
forcing the roots under glass or in a cellar. Strong fresh 
roots are dug in autumn and set close together on the 
ground in the forcing-house, the spaces between packed 
with earth, and the 
roots allowed to 
freeze thoroughly be- 
fore heat is turned 
on. For the spring 
crop the roots may 
remain frozen for 
some weeks. Market- 
able stalks should be 

. 9. Young rhubarb seedlings (X about V2). 

produced m five or 

six weeks. Sometimes the roots are forced in the dark 
in a cellar, having been taken up in autumn and frozen; 
leaf-blades do not develop, and the stalks have a tender 
pink semi-blanched appearance, but they are not improved 
in quality thereby. Forced roots are usually discarded. 

The Rhubarb Plant 

Rheum, a genus of the Buckwheat Family, Polygonacese, 
strong perennial herbs of about 25 species, in Asia. Some of 
them are more or less planted as ornamentals, prized for their 
striking masses of large root-leaves and sometimes for their 
towering panicles of numerous flowers. 

R. Rhaponticum, Linn. Sp. PI. 371. Common Rhubarb. 




38 



Perennial Crops 



Stout herb, iivitli large roots (becoming hollow) variously 
branching from a rhizomatous croNvn : leaves mostly radical 
(from the crown at or near the surface of the ground), blade 
cordate-ovate, concave, the radical ones 12 to 20 in. long and 
of similar width, margins entire but more or less long-sinuate 
and usually somewhat undulate, with 3 strong upright and 2 
basal ribs issuing from the top of the petiole, glabrous above, 
lightly pubescent on the nerves beneath; petioles very stout, 
shorter or longer than the blade, furrowed above and chan- 
nelled on sides and back, the cross-section concavo-convex, 
sheathed at the base, the sheaths eventually breaking away ; 
stem Ivs. of similar description but successively smaller and 
the long basal sheath conspicuous and encircling the stem like 
a boot-leg: stem 4-6 ft. tall, hollow, strict but somewhat 
branched, glabrous, shining, grooved, the nodes conspicuous : 
flowers numerous in successive panicles, very small (about 
2 mm. long), greenish white, on slender jointed pedicels exceed- 
ing the length of the perianth, the latter with 6 obtuse lobes ; 
stamens 9 (S-10), the large anthers equalling or exceeding 
the lobes; pistil 1, with large 3-lobed stigma: fruits (" seeds" 
of gardeners) cordate-ovate. ^4 to lo in. long, strongly 3-angled 
and winged, brown, glabrous, weighing 14 to 26 mg., tightly 
inclosing one large 3 -sided achene : longevity about 3 years. 
— Siberia. The above description is drawn from the rhubarb 
of cultivation, which is .commonly referred directly to R. 
Rhaponticum. There is doubt as to the species, however, 
and the vegetable-garden plant may be a hybrid or mutant 
race (perhaps represented by R. hiihridiun, Murr.). or even 
a different species. The species of Rheum are in need of fur- 
ther study. The medicinal rhubarb is from roots imported 
from Asia, probably from more than one species of Rheum ; 
perhaps the roots of R. Rhaponticum are still used to some 
extent for this purpose. The word "Rhaponticum" means the 
Pontic rha or rhubarb ; Pontus was an ancient region in Asia 
Minor. 



ARTICHOKE 

A lialf-hai'dy perennial, producing edible heads freely the 
second year, reciidring protection at tlie North. The plan- 
tation should he renewed every two or three years. The 
strengtli of the plant is to he conserved not only hy good 
soil and ahundant fertilizing, hut also hy removing extra 
stalks and not allowing the heads to seed. Propagated hy 
seeds and suckers, preferably the latter when one can select 
from a good stock. 

Plants may stand as far as 3 by 5 feet apart, requiring 
nearly 3,000 plants to the acre. Suckers are planted at about 
their natural depth, in spring. Seeds are sown in spring, pref- 
erably under glass, at least at the North. Each plant should 
yield a dozen and more good heads. The product (scales and 
receptacle) is eaten raw or cooked, usually the latter with 
sauce or drawn butter. 

The artichoke, especially in the South, is often attacked by 
the artichoke aphis (Myzus hragii) and the bean aphis (Aphis 
rumicis). These plant-lice may be controlled by thoroughly 
spraying the plants several times with Black Leaf 40 " tobacco 
extract, 1 part in 8 parts of water, in which enough soap has 
been added to make a suds. 

The artichoke is grown for the young nnopened burs or 
flower-heads (Fig. 10), the scales on the outside of the 
head having thick edible bases and the inside receptacle or 
bottom " of the head, after the flowers are removed, being- 
soft and palatable. The leaves and yonng shoots may 
also be eaten, when grown and blanched, after the way of 
celery, but this use of the plant is little known in 
America. 

(39) 



40 



Perennial Crops 



The artichoke is tender and precarious in the Northern 
States, although it is grown in favored localities with suc- 
cess by persons who understand the handling of it. While 




10. Artichokes, showing outside of head and a longitudinal 
section (X V3). 



tender, yet too heavy covering of the crown in autumn 
may smother the plant and kill it. Gardeners sometimes 
box the plant to protect it from winter winds, but do not 

fill the box with leaves or 
manure. It is frequently banked 
with earth. It should be grown 
on warm well-drained land and 
in a protected place. In the 
11. Fruits (seeds) of artichoke Southcm Statcs and California 

the plant thrives and is easy 
of cultivation. The California product largely supplies 
the Eastern markets. 

The artichoke is perennial, but the plantation should be 
renewed frequently. Seeds do not come true to name, and 




Artichohe 



41 



when the grower secures a good strain of hardy and pro- 
ductive plants he should propagate them by means of the 
suckers that spring from the crown; or he may purchase 
suckers of reliable dealers. 

Seeds give bearing plants the following year, but if 
they are started early under glass and planted in "quick" 
soil, a small number of heads may be had the first year. 
Suckers may give heading plants the first season, but the 
main cutting may be expected the second year. Eemov- 
ing some of the stalks, if many start, will increase the 
size of the remaining heads. Figs. 11 and 12 show the 
fruits (seeds) and 



Eows may stand 4 or 5 feet, and the plants 2 to 3 feet 
in the row; 3 by 5 feet, or 3 by 4 feet, are good dis- 
tances. 



Cynara. About a dozen species of large thistle-like per- 
ennial herbs, in the Mediterranean basin, of the Composite or 
Sunflower Family. 

C. Scolymus, Linn. Sp. PI. 827. Plant stout, more or less 
cottony, forming a clump or stool : stems few to several, erect, 
2 to 6 ft., grooved, branching or forking, commonly appearing 
after the first year: leaves many, mostly radical or basal, 
dull green and more or less gray-webby above and densely 
gray-tomentose beneath, divided almost to the winged rachis 



Distances for 
planting vary with 
the grower and the 
price of land, lii 
rich soil they may 
be farther apart. 



the seedlings. 




12. Seedlings of artichoke (X about %). 



The Aetichoke Plant 



42 



Perennial Crops 



and the divisions cut and lobed with short spines terminating 
the long narrow lobes, the radical ones 2 to 3 ft. long and 
a foot or more broad, arching at maturity ; stem Its. similar 
but successively smaller, decurrent : heads large (3 to 4 in. 
diam.), terminal, globular, erect, often subtended by bracts, 
producing a brush of numerous purple tubular florets; in- 
volucre scales imbricated, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, entire, 
obtuse or emarginate; receptacle thick and fleshy, bearing 
many bristles: fruit (seeds) oblong-ovate, ^ to % in, long, 
somewhat flattened, smooth, striate and spotted, weighing about 
40 to 70 mg., retaining vitality 5 to 7 years. — Southern Europe 
and northern Africa ; tending to run wild in parts of Cali- 
fornia. It is a plant of relatively modern cultivation. Some- 
times called " globe artichoke to distinguish it from the 
girasole. Very closely related to the cardoon (C. Cardunculus, 
Linn.), also of S. Europe and extensively naturalized in 
S. America. The cardoon is a taller and stouter plant; a 
form with thick leaf-stalks is cultivated for food after the 
manner of celery. Some botanists consider the artichoke and 
cardoon to be forms of one species. 

GIRASOLE 

Hardy plant grown for its underground tubers, which 
may he used as a vegetable, as are potatoes, or for stock 
feed. Requires 7io special treatment, and will persist in- 
definitely, and spread, if left to itself. Propagated by 
planting the tubers. 

As grown in this country, the girasole is seldom tilled. The 
tubers are planted whole, 1 to 2 feet apart, and the plants 
allowed to shift for themselves beyond an occasional destruc- 
tion of big weeds. Better results are to be expected when 
the tubers are planted in rows far enough apart for horse 
tillage, and 12 to 16 inches in the row. The plant requires the 
entire season in which to make its tubers, and the product is 
not dug till the tops begin to die. Tubers left in the ground 



Girasole 43 

are not Injured by frost. Planted in autumn or spring. Under 
regular cultivation, crops have been reported at the rate of 
9 to 20 tons, and even more, to the acre. 

The girasole is one of the tuber-bearing native sun- 
flowers, long cultivated by the Indians and often highly 
recommended for more general cultivation because of its 
heavy yields and its ability to grow on indifferent land and 
with little care. It readily responds, however, to good land 
and treatment. There are improved strains, and undoubt- 
edly it could be readily modified by systematic selection. 
The plant tends to become a weed, and farmers often turn 
hogs into a field infested with it, as they root for the 
tubers. The plant can be eradicated by thorough till- 
age, by means of which the tops do not have an oppor- 
tunity to grow. If the field is plowed in the fall, many 
of the roots will be exposed and they may be picked out. 
In fact, this is one of the best means of harvesting the 
crop. 

The girasole provides a very palatable food. It is strange 
that it has not met with better favor. The weedy charac- 
ter of the plant and the fact 
that potatoes have been abun- 
dant are probably reasons for 
its neglect. Its real service, 
however, is not in competi- 
tion with the potato, but as Girasole. an^ underground tuber 

another food plant of very 

distinct attributes. The tubers, produced underground, 
vary greatly in size and shape; Fig. 13 shows a common 
form. 

The girasole is commonly known as Jerusalem arti- 




44 



Perennial Crops 



choke, but as it is not an artichoke and has no relation 
to Jerusalem, the name should be dropped. In fact, 
" Jerusalem in this case is supposed to be a corruption 
of girasole, an Italian name. The French name, topi- 
nambour, is too formidable to become popular in English. 

The Gieasole Plant 

H el i a nth us, the sunflowers, comprises about 70 species, 
as no^Y recognized, natives of the western hemisphere. The 
common garden sunflower, //. annuus, yields edible seeds and 
its herbage provides more or less fodder. Several species pro- 
duce underground tubers, one of which has long been known 
as a food-plant. Helianthus is one of the Compositse. 

H. tuberosus, Linn. Sp. PI. 905. Gibasole. Topinambour. 
Perennial, producing tubers on the ends and branches of 
underground stems or rootstocks, as well as midway on the 
rootstocks : stem erect, 5 to 10 ft. tall, striate, hirsute : Ivs. 
opposite or the upper ones alternate, petioled, long-ovate to 
ovate-oblong, upper ones narrower, acuminate, serrate-dentate, 
rough above, more or less thin-pubescent beneath, with a pair 
of strong lateral ribs or nerres from the base, narrowed either 
abru]itly or gradually into a somewhat winged petiole : heads 
few or many terminating the branches, 2 or 3 in. across, with 
conspicuous light yellow veined pointed rays ; involucre of two 
or more series of lanceolate pointed ciliate scales, the outer 
ones spreading ; receptacle with scales subtending the achenes ; 
ray florets neutral (sexless), the disc florets perfect and yel- 
low, pappus of small deciduous scales: fruit (seed) oblong, 
pubescent, nearly or quite ^ in. long, usually only a few 
(sometimes none^ developed in each head. — Canada and U. S. 
It is doubtful whether Linnaeus meant to designate this plant 
in his description of H. tuherosus; his references do not certify 
to it, and he writes " habitat in Brasilia," although the Brazil 
of his day was apparently a broad geographical term and not 
necessarily the country now known by that name. 



SEA-KALE 

A perfectly hardy perennial grown for Us excellent 
young leaves and shoots, which are blanched as they appear 
in spring by banking with earth or covering ivith inverted 
pots or otlier tight receptacle. The soil should be deep and 
rich and rather moist. After cutting, the subsequent treat- 
ment is for the purpose of putting energy into the plant 
for the next year. Propagated by seeds, division, and root- 
cuttings. 

Planted at least 3 feet apart either way, and preferably 
somewliat farther if siiliicient land is available. At 3x3 feet, 
about 4,800 plants are required for an acre. A good crop 
ruay be expected the second or third year from cuttings or 
seeds. The plant should give good results for about 10 years. 

There appear to be no important diseases or insects on 
sea-kale in this country. 

Sea-kale is little known in this country, although it is 
deserving of popularity. It is particularly prized in 
England, where the 
cnltnre has been 
highly developed. 
After the plants are 
well established, the 
young shoots are 
blanched by covering 
the crown to the depth 
of a foot or more with 
loose fine earth in 
early spring. Some- 
times the shoots are al- 
lowed to grow upward U. shoots of sea-tale. 

(45) 




46 



Perennial Crops 



into a dark receptacle, as into a box inverted over the 
crown. Sea-kale may be forced after the manner of 
rhubarb. Tig. 1-i shows the characteristic young growth 
at the edible stage. 

After the early spring shoots are removed, the plant is 
allowed to grow as it will for the remainder of the season 
for, as in asparagus and rhubarb, the 
vigor of the young shoots of any season 
depend, to a large extent, on the vigor and 
energy of the plant in the preceding year. 
The soil should be deep and rich, and 
rather moist. An autumn top dressing is 
beneficial. 

Propagation is simple either by root- 
cuttings or seeds. Vigorous roots are cut 
into pieces 4 or 5 inches long and planted 
directly in the field in spring. If the land 
is strong, some of the shoots may be 
blanched the following spring, but it is 
better to wait till the second spring. 
Seeds (which are really 1-seeded fruits 
and planted unshelled, Fig. 15) are usu- 
ally sown about 1 inch deep, in seed- 
beds, the young plants being thinned to 
5 or 6 inches. The seedlings are trans- 
planted to permanent quarters the next spring, when one 
year old. 




15. Seed-pods 
(known In th© 
trade as seeds) of 
sea-kale (X 1/3). 



The Sea-Kale Plant 
Cram be. About 20 species, mostly native In Europe and 
Asia, none in North America, annual and perennial herbs; 
Cruciferse or Mustard Familv. 



Sea-Kale 47 

C. maritima, Linn. Sp. PI. 671. Sea-Kale. Fleshy per- 
ennial, glabrous, glaucous-blue, with thick cord-like deep roots : 
stem erect, to 3 ft. high, much branching above, more or less 
grooved, many-striate when dried : leaves* thick, petioled, 
variable in shape but mostly oblong-ovate in outline, variously 
lobed and notched ; lower leaves long-stalked and cabbage-like 
and often 2 ft. or more long, with strong midrib and many 
f)rominent side ribs, nearly entire in outline or shallowly wide- 
lobed along the sides, the margins coarsely and irregularly 
toothed or notched, undulate; stem leaves smaller and usually 
more deeply lobed, variously notched, the upper ones short- 
petioled : flowers about % in. across, white and showy, in 
terminal broad corymbed racemes, on long stout upright pedi- 
cels that elongate in fruit ; sepals oblong, hyaline-margined, 
obtuse, about half the length of the 4 obtuse veined petals 
which have an oval limb and clawed base; stamens 6, all 
anther-bearing, 2 shorter, the longer ones with 1 to 3 notches 
or branches at or above the middle; pistil 1, oblong-columnar, 
with a large globose stigma, comprising two joints, of which 
the lower one is short and barren and the upper one some- 
what broadened at the middle and fertile: fruit (the "seed" 
of seedsmen) a globular or globular-oblong pod or less to % 
in. diam., borne on an apparent very short stalk above the 
receptacle but which is the abortive lower point of the 2-jointed 
silique, smooth, the walls thick and spongy ; seed single, large 
and filling the cavity, suspended on a white stalk that arises 
from or near the bottom of the cavity and extends alongside 
the seed to the top ; pod and contents weigh about 100 mg. 
for a fair full-grown specimen; full germinating power prob- 
ably is retained for only a year or two. — Sea-coasts and clilfs, 
western Europe; introduced to cultivation probably within 200 
to 300 years, at least in England. The above description is 
drawn from the cultivated plant, which differs considerably 
In appearance from the wild plant observed by the writer 
on sea-cliffs, the latter being more squat, with lower stature 
and lopping simpler branches, the leaves smaller, more crinkly 
and less cabbage-like. 



48 



Perennial Crops 



DOCK AND SORREL 

Perennial deep-rooted liardij lierhs grown for the radical 
leaves appearing in spring, prized for greens. The plants 
require no special care, but the better the soil the more 
abundant will be the supply of foliage. They may be 
placed at one side of the garden and remain undisturbed 
for a few or several years, until they begin to run out. 
Propagated by seeds and division. 

Some of the weedy docks are gathered in spring for 
" greens." The roots of some of them provide old family 
remedies. The sorrels are known for their acid leaves. 
They are members of the large genus Eumex (Polygonaceae, 
Buckwheat family). The sorrels are dioecious plants (sexes 
separated on different plants), while the docks are larger 
and have perfect flowers or the plants may be monoecious, 
(sexes separated in different flowers on the same plant). A 
few species are cultivated for the edible foliage, but they 
are little known in this country, and technical descrip- 
tions are not necessary. Some of them are desirable ad- 
ditions to the garden because they yield a pleasant food in 
very early spring, and, once planted, remain for years. 

The spinach dock or herb patience {Rumex Patientia) , 
native in Eurasia and somewhat run wild in North Amer- 
ica, is a very stout herb with a deep taproot and flower 
stalk reaching 5 to 6 feet high. Seeds may be sown in 
spring in a row where they are to stand, and leaves may be 
taken the following spring. The broad crisp leaves appear 
early in April, when there is nothing green to be had in 
the open garden, and they can be cut continuously for a 
month or more. 



DocJi. SoiTel. Udo 



49 



The garden sorrel is a developed form of Rumex Acetosa, 
native in Europe and scattered in this country. The com- 
mon variety is Large Belleville. It has thinner, lighter 
green and longer-stalked leaves than the spinach dock, with 
spear-like lobes at the base, and the plant is not so tall 
and stout. The leaves are very sour, and will probably 
not prove to be so generally agreeable as those of the 
spinach dock; but they are a week or ten days later, and 
afford a succession. It is grown the same as the spinach 
dock, but some leaves may be harvested the first year 
from seed. The male plants are usually preferred, as they 
do not reduce themselves by seed-bearing. 

Both the spinach dock and sorrel may be grown about 
12 inches apart in the row. Sometimes they are propa- 
gated by suckers that arise near the crown. The seed 
stalks should be kept down, and only part of the leaves 
should be cut at any one time if the energy of the plant 
is to be conserved to the utmost. 

Other species of Eumex are sometimes cultivated, as the 
French sorrel, R. scutatus, by the French, and the dentate 
dock, R. dentatus, by the Chinese. 

UDO 

The udo is a Japanese plant introduced into this coun- 
try nearly twenty years ago, and now considerably known 
as an early spring vegetable. The plant is of the Ginseng 
or Aralia family (Aralia cordata, Thunb.), a strong 
hardy perennial; it sends up strong shoots in spring, and 
if these shoots are allowed to grow through a box of light 
sand, much after the way of growing witloof, they make 
a delicate blanched vegetable, eaten after being boiled, or 



50 



Perennial Crops 



prepared for salads. An unpleasant flavor is removed by 
boiling ten minutes in salt water and then changing the 
water; or if wanted for salad by being cut into thin 
slices and placed in ice-water for an hour. 

Udo is readily propagated by seeds. At three years, 
shoots may be taken, and thereafter for a number of 
years if the plants are given room and not allowed to 
run to seed. Plants should stand about 4 feet from each 
other. The tops spread widely, like the wild spikenard 
{Aralia racemosa) and reach 5 or 6 feet in height. Udo 
is a promising vegetable. 



CHAPTER III 



SPINACH AND OTHER GREENS 

Spinach Mustard 
Orach Purslane 
Chard or leaf-beet Dandelion 

Potherb crops, or greens, are grown for their leaves: 
therefore they must make quick growth in order to he crisp 
and tender; the ground must have good surface tilth and 
much available plant-food; the application of soluble 
nitrogenous substances is usually important, particularly 
when the growth is nearing completion. Most potherb 
crops demand a cool season; and nearly all of them are 
partial-season crops, and are therefore treated as succes- 
sion- or companion-crops. 

To the plants discussed in this chapter, several others 
might be added. JSTew Zealand spinach is not a spinach, 
but a member of the Fig Marigold family (Aizoaceae) ; 
it is Tetragonia expansa of the botanists. It is annual; 
it endures hot weather and therefore may be sub- 
stituted for spinach in summer, being sown at intervals. 
Kale (see Chapter IV) is really a potherb plant; and it 
would not be great violence to include cabbage in this 
group. Several docks and sorrels are grown as potherbs, 
but as these are perennial they are discussed in Chapter 
II. The potherbs are among the oldest of the vegetable- 

(51) 



52 



Spinach and Oilier Greens 



garden plants, and the nnmber nsed first and last is legion. 
The need for green food is common to all peoples. They 
are cheap foods to grow, in comparison with seed-foods, as 
they usually require only a part of the season in which to 
grow. Most of the potherbs are of very simple culture. 

SPINACH 

Spinach is essentially a sp^-ing and autumn crop. It 
delights in cool moist weather. It quickly runs to seed in- 
summer. It is grown mostly in drills. It is usually a 
succession-crop. Propagated l)y seeds, which germinate 
quicMy. It is a true annual, hut may he carried over win- 
ter hy starting it in autumn, as it is very hardy. The crop 
requires a moist soil, well supplied with quickly availahle 
fertility. 

Seed Is sown about 1 in. deep from late August to Novem- 
ber, according to locality, or at the earliest moment in spring, 
in rows about 1 ft. (S to 14 in.) apart, and thinned to about 6 
in., making a stand of about ST. 000 plants to the acre. Some- 
times it is sown broadcast on clean land, and not thinned. From 
10 to 15 lbs. of seed are required to sow an acre in drills, and 
nearly or quite that much if broadcasted. In a continuous 
growing season, the plants should be ready to harvest in 6 to S 
weeks. The yield of a good crop should be 200 to 250 barrels ; 
the nnmber of " heads " can be estimated from the distances 
planted. 

Blight or mosaic. — Great losses of spinach are incurred 
because of this disease. The symptoms are similar to those 
of other hosts affected by mosaic, and may be recognized by 
the mottling and malformation of the foliage, the dwarfing, 
and finally the premature dying of the plant. Insects are 
now known to carry the virus from diseased to healthy plants, 
as well as to act as virus-bearers during the part of the year 



Spinach 53 

when spinach is not grown. Neither the soil nor the seed are 
considered as carriers or hibernating places for the contagium. 
Control: The only recommendations possible are the elimina- 
tion of the aphis. Experimental breeding for blight-resistant 
spinach is being conducted and may later prove effective in 
reducing the losses now caused by the disease. (See McClin- 
tock, T. A. and L. B. Smith, True nature of spinach blight 
and relation of insects to transmission. Jour. Agr. Research 
14:1-60. 1918.) 

Spinach aphis (Myzus persicce) . — A pale yellowish green 
plant-louse that infests the underside of the leaves, often ruin- 
ing the crop. It also transmits the mosaic disease or blight 
of spinach. Control: Spray with " Black Leaf 40" tobacco ex- 
tract, 1 pint in 100 gals, water, in which 5 or 6 lbs. soap have 
been dissolved, taking care to hit the underside of the leaves. 

Beet leaf-minee {Pegomyia hijoscyami) . — See under beet, 
page 164. 

Spinach, or spinage, is the standard plant for spring 
and fall greens. For home use it may be had in summer 
by making successional sowings in rather cool and moist 
ground ; but as a commercial crop, it is not grown in warm 
weather. Formerly spinach was brought to early maturity 
in the North under glass on a rather large, scale, but of 
late years it is grown in such quantities about Norfolk 
and other parts of the middle country and the South that 
it is seldom grown in frames in the North except for home 
use. From southern fields it comes both as a winter and 
an early spring crop. Fig. 16 is a good spinach plant. 

The winter and early spring spinach is usually grown 
from seeds sow^n in the field in September, or later than 
this in the Central and Southern States. The land should 
be rich; also well drained, that the plants may not 
" heave " by frost. It is customary to plow the land into 



54 



Spinach and Other Greens 



low ridges or beds 6 to 9 feet wide, to secure perfect sur- 
face drainage. Lengthwise in these beds the spinach is 
sown in rows about 12 inches apart, the distance depend- 
ing on the means employed for tillage; in some cases, 
18 inches is left between the rows, and in other cases 
only 8 inches. The distance between the plants, after 
thinning, is usually 4 or 5 inches. The plants should 
become thoroughly established before winter, having made 




16. Spinach at good edible stage (X 1/3). 



a spread of leaves of three or four inches at least. The 
crop is usually left uncovered in the N"orth, even as far 
north as New York State ; although if material is at hand, 
it may be covered lightly with straw or litter to prevent 
heaving and thawing. On the first opening of spring the 
spinach resumes growth. In fact, in mild seasons it may 
grow throughout most of the winter. It should be ready 
for use in April and May, and be off the ground early in 
June, even in the Northern States, leaving the land for 



Spinach 



56 



other crops. In the South it is marketed from late 
November to March and early April. 

Since spinach is prized for its crisp tender leaves, it is 
a crop that profits by an application of soluble nitrogenous 
fertilizers. It ia customary, in some parts of the country, 
to sprinkle the ground early in the spring with a weak solu- 
tion of nitrate of soda or sulfate of ammonia, using 
50 to 75 pounds of the fertilizer to the acre at each of two 
or three successive applications. These applications may 
be made at intervals of ten days to two weeks. The appli- 



cations are often applied by means of a street sprinkler or 
similar arrangement. Other growers apply dry fertilizer, 
broadcast, in liberal applications, as much as 1,000 to 1,500 
pounds or more to the acre, depending on soil and season. 
Sometimes the beds are top-dressed with manure in the 
fall, and the leachings from the manure start the plants 
quickly in spring. Hen-manure is sometimes used. 

For home use, and sometimes for market, plants are 
started in spring in a warm position, the seed usually being 
sown where the plants are to remain. It is more easy to 
secure a good stand by this spring sowing, but the plants 




17. Fruits of the smooth- 
seeded spinach (X about 
3). 



18. Prickly-seeded (-fruited) spinach 
(X 2). 



56 



Spinacli and Other Greens 



do not mature so early. Spinach is sometimes started 
under glass and transplanted to the open; and it is fre- 
quently grown to edible maturity in frames. Sometimes 
beds of fall-grown spinach are covered Avith sash in Feb- 
ruary or March to hasten the plants. There is always more 
or less loss of fall-grown plants in the Northern States. 

Two general classes of spinach are familiar to garden- 
ers, the smooth-seeded and the prickly-seeded. The latter 
tends to fall into disfavor because of the trouble of sow- 
ing it, owing to the very sharp spines on the fruit (or 



spinachs (smooth-seeded) are valued for the large and 
wrinkled leaves. Strains or varieties of spinach have been 
developed that run tardily to seed; they are known as the 
long-standing kinds; they are specially useful for spring 
planting. The figures (17 and 18) show the two kinds 
of seeds, and Fig. 19 the seedlings. 

In its undeveloped state, both types of spinach bear 
relatively narrow halberd-shaped or spear-shaped leaves, 
having strong spreading lobes at the base. The modern 
purpose in the selection of stock is toward "round-leaved" 
types, those in which the leaves are broader and lack the 
basal lobes. Even in varieties developed with this pur- 
pose, lobed leaves usually appear freely, even on the same 




19. Seedlings of spinach (X about 



" seed ") ; it has been 
preferred for autumn 
sowing because very 
hardy, but smooth- 
seeded kinds are 
coming to be popu- 
lar for this purpose. 
The savoy - leaved 



Spinach 



57 



plant with the prevailing round leaves; but the lobing is 
mostly less marked and the leaves are broader than in the 
older types. 

Spinach is mostly dioecious — the sexes separated in 
flowers on different plants. After flowering, the staminate 
or male plant usually ceases to grow and dies, while the 
pistillate or female plant continues to grow to ripen its 
crop of seed. This may account for some of the poor 
plants in seeding spinach rows. 

The Spinach Plant 

Spinacia. A genus of four or less species, annual herbs, 
of southwestern Asia, member of tlie Clienopodiacefe or Goose- 
foot Family, and therefore closely related to the beet. 

S. oleracea, Linn. Sp. PI. 1027, {S. spmosa, Moeueh, Meth. 
31S. 1794.) Pkickly-seeded Spinach. Annual, dioecious; 
plant smooth and glabrous throughout, tap-rooted, producing 
abundant crown-leaves in the cool season when young, in warm 
weather soon sending out an erect simple or branched leafy 
stem (and sometimes supplementary stems) 6 in. to 2 ft. tall: 
leaves all petioled, various in shape and size, the margins 
entire, acute or obtuse at the apex; radical leaves in the 
presumably more primitive races narrowly oblong to ovate- 
oblong, in the more developed races ovate to round-ovate and 
sometimes several inches long, the petiole shorter or longer 
than the blade, base of blade obtuse and semi- or unequally 
cordate or truncate or with downward-extending or outward- 
extending pointed narrow lobes, sometimes with extra lobes 
below and above as if the leaf were inclined to be compound ; 
stem leaves smaller, alternate, oblong to broad-ovate, becoming 
lanceolate in the inflorescence, very various in size and lobing 
or in absence of lobing, the petioles usually conspicuously long : 
flowers apetalous, small and practically uncolored (green), the 
staminate mostly forming leafless spikes or panicles of sessile 
or stalked glomerules, the pistillate flowers several to many 
and sessile in the axils of leaves or of leafy bracts ; staminate 



58 



Spinach and Other Greens 



perianth with 4 obtuse hyaline-margined divisions (divided to 
base) and 4 exserted stamens opposite them, the pistil rudi- 
mentary ; pistillate perianth 2-notched and close-pressed about 
the single 5-styled pistil, the styles exserted, the perianth bear- 
ing 2 to 4 spines on its exterior : fruit a small brown achene 
inclosed within the persisting enlarged closed and indurated 
spiny perianth, the entire structure constituting the " seed " of 
gardeners, % to % in. in spread; this seed (fruit) weighs 10 
to 20 mg. and has a germinating vitality of about 5 years. 

Tar. inermis, Peterm. Pflzschluss. 377. 1S46. (S. inermis, 
Moench. Meth. 318. 1794. S. glabra, Mill. Gard. Diet. Spinacia 
No. 2. 1768. S. oleracea var. glahra, Guerke, Richt.-Guerke, 
PL Eur. li, 138. 1897.) Round-seeded Spinach. Fruits " smooth," 
i.e., without spines : plant supposed usually to make closer 
tufts of larger root leaves. — Whatever may have been the dis- 
tinctions in foliage, size and habit between the two races of 
spinach in earlier times, in cultivation at present the characters 
appear to be largely merged except in the smoothness or spini- 
ness of the fruit ; and even in these fruit characters the differ- 
ence may not be great, for in some strains the spines are very 
short, and marked rudiments of spines also may be observed 
frequently on round-seeded kinds. In defining the two kinds, 
Philipp Miller in 1768 characterized S. oleracea as " spinach 
with arrow-pointed leaves and prickly seeds," and S. glal)ra as 
" spinach with oblong oval leaves and smooth seeds." He did 
not speak of " round leaves." Spinach is a plant of relatively 
recent domestication, and it is not greatly modified. 

OTHER GREENS 

Many kinds of plants aside from spinach are used as 
greens or potherbs. Some of the common weeds are much 
prized for this purpose in the rural districts, particularly 
the common white pigweed or Iambus quarter, pusley or 
purslane, dandelion and dock. Shepherd's purse is a 
favorite food plant in China, where it is cultivated. The 
amaranths supply vast numbers of people in other parts 



Orach. Chard 



59 



of the world with green food. Chicory tops, in the form 
of witloof and otherwise, are much eaten. Many plants are 
adaptable to such uses; we shall probably learn to prize 
them as time goes on. 

Orach, a luxuriant annual of the goosefoot (pigweed) 
tribe, is grown for the large succulent root-leaves. It is 
essentially a cool-season plant, the seed being sown early 
in spring and the foliage used before midsummer. The 
plant sends up a strong flower-stalk, and thereafter it is 
of no use as a potherb ; to avoid the flowering habit, seeds 
should be planted very early, and successional sowing may 
be made. There are green -leaved (white orach) and red- 
leaved forms. As young plants they make handsome pot 
specimens, particularly the red-leaved kinds. 

Orach is Atriplex liortensis, Linn., of Asia, with trian- 
gular-ovate long-stalked leaves which have sinuate or 
irregularly dentate margins, and usually a halberd-lobed 
or truncate-lobed base ; upper stem leaves oblong to lanceo- 
late. The smooth and glabrous erect graceful flowering 
stems rise 3 to 5 feet; the fruits (^^ seeds '') are large, 
flat, winged, disc-like, circular to ovate. Yar. ruhra, DC, 
is the red-leaved orach. 

Chard, or leaf-heet, is one of the best of potherb plants, 
particularly for summer, as it withstands heat. It ordi- 
narily requires nearly a full season in which to mature, 
although it will give a supply of edible foliage from early 
summer until autumn. The chard has very broad and 
thick leaf -blades and midribs, which are usually white or 
tinted rather than green (Fig. 20). Sometimes these 
are blanched by tying up the bunch of foliage. Seeds are 



60 Spinacli and Other Greens 



&own early in spring, as are ordinary beet seeds, and the 
plants are thinned as used until finally they stand 6 to 12 
inches in the row. The rows should stand 18 to 24 inches, 
as the plants produce very large 
tops. Small plants of the common 
beet, as explained on page 164, are 
often used for greens, but they 
are inferior to the developed forms 
known as chard. 

From mature plants the leaves are 
taken as wanted, care being exer- 
cised not to strip the crown at any 
izatbering. The plant should con- 
tinue to produce throughout the 
season, and crowns remaining over 
winter often grow in spring, al- 
though the second year they run 
quickly to seed. Fall-sown plants, 
if well established, often ])ass the 
winter in safety. Sometimes they 
are carried over in coldframes, for 
early spring crop; and the plants may be started under 
glass late in winter, and transplanted, for the same pur- 
pose. 

Chard is a beet, Beta vulgaris var. Clda, for which see 
page ITO. The beet leaf-miner sometimes attacks it. 




ro. Chard, showing the 
wide edible petiole and 
midrib (X /s). 



Mustard is much used for greens in home gardens, and 
it is also grown to a large extent in parts of the South, 
where the climate is too hot for many other potherb crops. 
Some of the improved varieties of curled-leaved mustard 



Mustard. Purslane 



61 



are amongst the best of all potherb plants. In many other 
countiies the mustards supply immense quantities of food, 
being eaten with rice and other basic materials. 

The seeds are sown very early in spring, and the tender 
bunch of foliage is ready for use in May or June. In fact, 
even in the Northern States, on sandy warm land the seeds 
may be sown in autumn and the plants will be ready for 
use in early spring, although the seeds may not germinate 
in the fall. In midsummer the plants run to seed. Care 
should be exercised not to let the plants seed themselves 
too freely, as they are likely to escape into unoccupied areas 
and become weedy. 

The kinds of mustard are many, representing several 
species of Brassica (Cruciferge or Mustard family). Some 
of them yield oil from their seeds — used extensively as 
food and in the arts. They are so little appreciated as 
potherb vegetables in this country, however, that technical 
descriptions of them are unnecessary at this point, and the 
more so as the botanical status of some of them is yet un- 
settled (see pages 96 to 98). In the South, the Southern 
Giant Curled mustard {Brassica japonica) is much used, 
largely taking the place of both spinach and lettuce. The 
Ostrich Plume is of this race. The Broad-Leaf (Brassica 
rugosa) is a most robust plant, and gives a ""arge amount of 
excellent herbage quickly. The young leaves of white and 
black mustard {Brassica aiha and B. nigra) are sometimes 
employed as potherbs. 

Purslane, or " pusley,^^ has been much improved by the 
arts of the plant-breeder, although the wild purslane is 
prized as a potherb. The ordinary pusley of the field is 



62 



Spinach and Other Greens 



a weak-stemmed plant trailing on the ground (Fig. 21), 
whereas the Improved, or French purslane, grows more ov 
less erect, and has very thick and succulent stems and 
large leaves (Fig. 22). It is easily grown in any good 
quick garden land from seeds sown in early spring where 
the plants are to stand. It matures quickly, and, unlike 
many other kinds of potherb plants, it is not injured by 
warm weather. However, the crop is usually harvested 




21. Common purslane or "pusley." 



before midsummer, as greens are not in demand at that 
time. Sometimes it is started under glass and trans- 
planted. Although the seeds are small, they germinate 
strongly. There seems to be little danger of the cultivated 
purslane self -sowing and becoming a weed. If kept moist 
and vigorous, the plant may be cut more than once. The 
plant rises one foot or more and spreads widely or lops 
with age. 

The cultivated purslane is Portulaca oleracea, Linn, 
var. sativa, DC. It is probably a result of domestication. 



PursJam. Dandelion 



63 



although the point needs further investigation. There are 
erect forms of wild purslane, as P. oleracea var. erecta, 
Edgew. & Hook, f., in India, but the leaves are narrow. 
De Candolle speaks of the var. sativa as if native in India 
and South America, and also as cultivated in Europe. The 
contrast in habit and stature between the wild purslane and 
the cultivated kind aifords a marked example of the sup- 
posed effects of domestication. The winter purslane is a 
different plant of the same family {Montia perfoliata, 
Howell), native of western America to Mexico. It is 
sometimes grown for autumn and winter use, being sown 
in summer, or treated, as a winter annual for earh^ spring. 

Dandelion. — The dande- 
lion is a great favorite 
for spring greens, being 
cut from meadows and 
yards for the purpose. It 
seems not to be generally 
realized, however, that the 
plant has been greatly im- 
proved in size and vigor as 
a potherb, and that it is 
much grown abroad and 
also to a considerable ex- 
tent as a market crop in 
this country. Some of the 
varieties with large leaves 
and others with cut or frilled leaves are great improve- 
ments on the vrild plant, and the foliiige is often hand- 
some for garnishing as well as useful for food. Some of 




64 



Spinach and Other Greens 



the forms resemble curled endive. Others are " heading ^' 
dandelions, the leaves forming a firm tuft or core. 

In cultivation the dandelion is treated as annual, al- 
though the plant is perennial or biennial. The seed is sowtl 
in early spring and the crop is harvested in autumn, or 
plants are allowed to remain in the ground until the fol- 
lowing spring. Although dandelion will grow anywhere, it 
must have deep rich soil and good tillage if it is to make 
large and succulent foliage. Occasionally the seed is sown 
in seed-beds or in frames, and the plants are transplanted 
to the field; but usually the seeds are sown where the 
plants are to stand. The young plants are thinned until 
they stand one foot apart in the row. The distance be- 
tween the rows will depend entirely on the value of the 
land and the means that are employed for tilling. If the 
plantation is to be tilled by hand tools, the plants may be 
allowed to stand as close as one foot each way; but if 
horse tools are used, the rows should be two or more feet 
asunder. 

Since, the demand for greens is usually greatest in early 
spring, the plants are generally allowed to stand through 
the winter. They are then ready for use as soon as the 
early growth starts. The rosette of foliage should be 
dense and wide-spreading, covering a space 12 to 20 inches 
across. The crop is harvested by cutting off the rosette 
of leaves just at the crown. The land is then plowed, 
and there is no danger that the plant will become a pest. 
The small and inferior plants not fit for sale should 
also be cut to prevent them from going to seed and 
becoming a nuisance. Sometimes a light crop is harvested 
the first year, the leaves being mown off so as not to injure 



Dandelion 



65 



the crown; even in this case, the main crop may be had 
the following spring. 

The roots of the garden-grown dandelion are some- 
times taken up in autumn and removed to the hotbed or 
forcing-house, and greens may be had in cold weather. 
They may be forced 'in this way in a dark place to pro- 
vide blanched leaves. Even in the field the leaves may 
be tied up to blanch the inner part of the crown, much 
as endive is treated. 

The cultivated plant is a developed form, or series of 
forms, of the common dandelion, Taraxacum officinale, 
Weber. The dandelion itself is with us a naturalized 
weed from Europe. 



CHAPTEE IV 



COLE CROPS 



Brussels sprouts 

Kale, borecole and collards 

Brussels sprouts 



Cauliflower and broccoli 

Kohlrabi 

Pe-tsai 



All cole crops are hardy and demand a cool season and 
rich soil, and abundance of moisture at the root. Propa- 
gated by seeds, which germinate rapidly; except the kales 
and Icohlrabi, all are seed-hed crops, and even kales are 
often started in heds. Each plant requires considerable 
space to develop ivell. Cole crops are groiun for the 
vegetative above-ground parts rather than for fruits or 
roots. 

The cole crops constitute a natural group from the fact 
that they are closely related. They are all brassicas, and 
most of them are races of the same species. They are 
frost-hardy, and thrive particularly well in the cool of the 
year, although most of them are grown in summer. 



Cabbage is groivn for the dense rosette or '''head" of 
leaves. Cool soil ivhich is deep and has power to hold 
much moisture, continuous groivth from, start to finish, 
frequent and thorough surface tillage, extra care in the 
selection of seed, avoiding the root-maggot, club-root, and 



CABBAGE 



(66) 



Cole-crop Diseases 



67 



rot hy means of rotation and special treatments, destroying 
the cabbage-worm as soon as it appears, — these are essen- 
tials in cabbage growing. 

One ounce of cabbage seed contains over 8,000 seeds, hut 
not more tban one-third or one-lialf of these seeds may be 
expected to make good plants. Early varieties are set 18 x 24 
inches, or 24x24 inches (about 12,000 plants to the acre); 
late varieties 2x3 feet (about 7,000 plants). Four to six 
ounces of seed are usually required for an acre. The yield can 
be estimated from the number of plants to the acre, as a 
plant produces only one head. The heads of early varieties, 
which are set close, weigh from 2 to 4 lbs., of the late varieties 
5 to 6 lbs. Due allowances must always be made for uneven 
crop, insect depredations, and other losses. For early cab- 
bage, 8.000 heads to the acre are considered a good crop. In 
field culture, the yields run 10 to 20 tons to the acre, with 15 
tons as perhaps a fair average in the hands of good men ; 
25 tons, and even more, are sometimes secured. 

Clubroot {Plasmodiophora hrassicre). — The most striking 
symptom of clubroot in the field is a flagging of the leaves 
of affected plants on sunny days. Such plants regain their 
normal appearance overnight, but soon wilt again. The roots 
of diseased plants show characteristic malformations or swell- 
ings w^hicli frequently attain large size. Cauliflower, turnips, 
radishes, shepherd's-purse, wild mustard and other related 
plants are affected. Control: A clean seed-bed is essential. 
Slaked lime at the rate of about 75 bushels to the acre applied 
every few years is advisable if the disease has appeared in a 
field, since an alkaline reaction is unfavorable to the develop- 
ment of the organism. This should he applied the fall pre- 
vious to planting. Diseased plants should be destroyed by 
burning. A long rotation, during which cruciferous weeds 
and cultivated crucifers are not permitted to grow, is 
important. 

Black-rot {BoGterium campestre) . — The yellowing of af- 
fected leaves followed by a blackening of the veins is the 



68 



Cole Crops 



first indicatiou of the disease. Affected leaves may later fall 
off. Leaf petioles, leaf-scars, and stems of affected plants show 
blackened dots, where the sap tubes are discolored. Practi- 
cally all cultivated cruciters and many cruciferous weeds are 
susceptible. Control: Seed disinfection is necessary. Formalde- 
hyde solution made by adding 1- ounce of formaldehyde (40 
per cent) to 2 gallons of water, or 2 teaspoonfuls to one pint 
of water, may be used. Seed should be immersed for 15 to 20 
minutes in the solution, the formaldehyde washed off in clear 
water, and the seed spread out in a thin layer to dry. Mercu- 
ric chloride solution (1 to 1000) made by adding 1 ounce of 
mercuric chloride to T^^^ gallons of water, or 1 tablet to 1 pint 
of water, is also sitisfactory. Seed should be soaked for 
15 minutes, the mercuric chloride washed off in clear water 
and the seed spread out in a thin layer to dry. It is desir- 
able not to place the seed in direct sunlight and to stir them 
at intervals during drying. A clean seed-bed, care in the 
destruction of diseased material, and crop rotation are neces- 
sary. 

Black-leg (PJioma linr/ani). — The disease develops on 
leaves, stems and roots but characteristically attacks the stems 
and taproot below the surface of the ground. In advanced 
stages the dead areas are covered with tiny black fruiting 
bodies. Control: Same as for black-rot. 

Yellows (FiisariKut c-jnaliKUnans ) . — Affected plants are 
stunted, the leaves turning a pale yellow. Usually the symp- 
toms appear earlier and are more severe on one side of the 
plant, so that there is a warping and curling of stems and 
leaves. There is a darkening of the vascular bundles of the 
stem and the lower leaves of diseased plants drop early. Con- 
trol: Seed disinfection (as recommended for black-rot and 
black-leg) is important to prevent the introduction of the fun- 
gus, and a disease-free seed-bed is essential. Planting must 
be into disease-free' soil. The Volga and Houser are con- 
sidered resistant. The Wisconsin Hollander is a resistant selec- 
tion for the winter crop. 



Cole-crop Insects 



69 



Gbeex cabbage worm (Pontia rapw). — A velvety green 
caterpillar about 1 in. long that eats holes in the leaves and 
often burrows into the forming head. Control: The U. S. 
Department of Agriculture recommends spraying the plants 
with the following formula : water, 50 gals. ; soap, 4 lbs. ; 
arsenate of lead (paste), 4 lbs., or powder, 2 lbs. In small 
quantities : water, 1 gal. ; soap, 1 inch cube ; arsenate of lead 
(paste), 1 oz., or powder, ^2 oz. Since the cabbage head 
grows from inside the plant there is no danger from poison- 
ing. If the outer leaves are removed before cooking, spraying 
is safe to within three weeks of harvest. If spraying is begun 
early in the season there will be little damage from late broods 
of worms. 

The poison may be applied in the form of a dust, using 
1 part powdered arsenate of lead in 4 parts air-slaked 
lime. In gardens the dust may be shaken on the plants by 
means of a cheesecloth bag. Apply thinly while the dew is 
on the leaves. 

When only a few plants are grown, hand-picking is often 
the cheapest and easiest way to destroy the worms. In the 
home garden, pyrethrum. hellebore and hot water (130° F.) 
are convenient and useful remedies. 

Cabbage loopee {Aufof/rapha l)rassic<T). — A green looping 
caterpillar, marked with longitudinal white stripes, about l^i 
in. long when full-grown. The caterpillars eat out holes in the 
leaves and often Lore into the forming head. Control: The 
caterpillars are difficult to poison as they dislike foliage coated 
with an insecticide, and as they crawl aljout freely can easily 
avoid the poison. The best results have been obtained by 
spraying with paris green, 1 lb. in SO gals, of water to which the 
resin-lime mixture has been added. Some growers lightly dust 
with pure paris green with satisfactory results. 

Diamoxd-hactv moth (PJutella maciilipcnnis) . — Small pale 
green caterpillars, about % in. long when full-grown, that eat 
holes in the leaves from beneath. The injured part dies, turns 



70 



Cole Crops 



brown and drops out, leaving the leaf riddled with lioles. 
Control: Spray with 2 lbs. paris green and 6 lbs. soap in 100 
gals, water or with arsenate of lead (paste), 8 lbs. in 100 
gals, of water. 

Cross-striped cabbage worm {Evergestis rimosalis). — A 
bluish gray caterpillar marked with distinct transverse black 
stripes, about in. long when full-grown, that eats holes in 
the foliage somewhat like the green cabbage worm, and often 
attacks the tender central leaves and forming head ; restricted 
to the Sontberii States. Control: Same as tor the green cab- 
bage worm. 

Cabbage webworm {Eellula iindalis). — Dull grayish yellow 
caterpillars marked above with five conspicuous brownish 
purple longitudinal stripes, about % in. long when full-grown ; 
restricted to the Southern States. They feed on the under- 
side of the leaves, bore into the leaf-stems and developing 
head, and usually cover their feeding grounds with a silken 
web. Control: Where this pest is likely to be troublesome, 
keep the plants well sprpyed with paris green, 1 lb. in 50 gals, 
water, or with arsenate of lead. 4 lbs. (paste) in 100 gals, 
water, to kill the young larvip. After the webs are formed, 
it is impossible to poison the caterpillars. In severe cases col- 
lect and destroy cabbage stumps left in the field after the 
harvest. 

Garden webworm (Lorosfeoe sininalis). — A dull green 
caterpillar about 1 in. long, marked on the back and on each 
side with a pale line, and with numerous small shining black 
spots on the back ; restricted to the Southern States and to 
the Mississippi Valley. The young caterpillars skeletonize the 
leaves on the underside, covering them with webs ; the older 
larvfe devour the entire leaf. Control: Same as for the 
preceding. 

Purple-backed cabbage worm (Evergestis straminalis) . — 
A bristly purplish brown to dark greenish caterpillar. % hi. 
long, marked on each side with a yellowish stripe, that feeds 
on the leaves, webbing them together, and sometimes bur- 



Cole-crop Insects 



71 



rows into the stem and crown ; restricted as a pest to tlie mari- 
time provinces of Canada. Control: Spray with arsenate of 
lead (pastej , 2 lbs. in 50 gals, of water. 

Zebra caterpillae (Alamesfra picta). — A brightly colored 
caterpillar, 2 in. long when full-grown, black, with two bright 
yellow stripes on each side of the body. It often attracts 
attention, but rarely causes serious damage. Control: Spray- 
ing with an arsenical as for the green cabbage worm. 

Cabbage aphis {ApJiis hras-skrr). — A mealy grayish-green 
plant-louse that often occurs in dense masses on the underside 
of the leaves and on the tender leaves on the heart of the 
plant ; most abundant and destructive in seasons of drought. 
Control: Thorough spraying with so-called whale-oil or tish-oil 
soap, 10 lbs. in 100 gals, water, or with •• Black Leaf 40 tobacco 
extract, % pint in 100 gals, water with 4 or 5 lbs. soap added. 
Use long leads of hose equipped with short extension rods and 
direct the spray by hand. For effective work, a pressure of 
150 to 175 lbs. should be maintained and enough of the spray 
applied to wet the lice thoroughly. 

Turnip aphis (Aphis pseudohrassicfE) . — A plant-louse closely 
related to the cabbage aphis and often confused with it. Con- 
trol: Same as for the cabbage aphis. 

Spinach aphis (Mijzus persic(p) . — See under Spinach. 

Cabbage root-maggot (PhorJjia fjrassicfp ) . — Small whitish 
maggots about % in. long which taper toward the head. They 
first attack the tender rootlets and then burrow in the main 
root, causing the plants to wilt and die. In the Xorth they 
are most destructive to early cabbage in the field and late 
cabbage in the seed-bed. Control: Seed-beds are best pro- 
tected from maggot attack by screening them with cheese- 
cloth covers. The bed is surrounded by 6 or S in. boards 
placed on edge and the cheesecloth is stretched over the top. 
being supported by galvanized wires running over short posts. 
Early cabbas'e in the field may lie protected by placing tarred 
paper discs around the plants when they are set out. Recent 
experiments in Canada indicate that corrosive sublimate. 1 part 



72 



Cole Crops 



in 1,000 parts water, has a repellent effect on the young mag- 
gots. Two or three applications are required to keep the 
plants free from injury. 

Hablequin cabbage bug {Murgantia liistrionica) . — A stink- 
bug % i^i- loiig. mottled red, black or yellow-orange, that in 
both the adult and immature stages attacks the plants, punc- 
turing the leaves and stems, sucking out the juices and appar- 
ently poisoning the tissues. Control: Practice clean farming; 
destroy all cabbage stumps and other refuse after the crop is 
harvested ; reduce hibernating shelter to a minimum ; leave 
a few piles of rubbish in the field in the fall as traps. After 
the bugs have collected in these piles they should be burned. 
In the spring plant trap crops of kale, mustard or rape that 
will come u]) before the main crop, and when the bugs collect 
on these plants, kill them by spraying with clear kerosene. 

Cabbage is a major oleraceous crop. It is used in 
one form or another in every household. It is both early 
and late. It practically covers the year. It is adapted 
to a wide range of country. It is useful for stock feed. It 
is grown by the home gardener, market-gardener, trucker, 
general farmer. A good cabbage head (Fig. 23) is a 
comely and handsome object, with flowing lines, excellent 
colorings, and attractive modelling. 

The cabbage crop produces an enormous gross tonnage. 
Aside from the harvested heads, the leaves, stumps, roots 
and discards make great bulk and weight. Land must 
have good sustaining power to produce this herbage: and 
as the major part of the weight is water, the moisture- 
content must be unfailing. Make the land rich, prepare 
good depth to hold moisture, and keep the cultivat-or mov- 
ing. Use ever}" means to save the soil-moisture. If the 
nearly mature heads cease growing and are then started 



Cabbage 



73 



into growth again by means of tillage or rains, they are 
likely to crack. 

Cabbage thrives on a great variety of soils. " Good corn 
land/' if thoroughly prepared, shonld yield heavily in cab- 
bages. Liberal fertilizing is usually essential to good 
results. Intensive growers often apply 1,000 to 2,000 
pounds to the acre of chemical fertilizer to the early crop. 




23. Cabbage of the oblate type. 



with a liberal supply of nitrogen to hasten growth; for the 
late crop, with a longer season, less amounts may be sup- 
plied, although a heavy yield demands good feeding. 
Stable manure is much used for cabbages, sometimes as 
much as 40 loads to the acre. Late cabbage often follows 
an early crop of s(3mething else, as of peas or strawberries ; 
early cabbage is often followed by late crops, as of turnips 
or fall-set strawberries. 



74 



Cole Crops 



Propagation; tillage. 

For the early crop, the plants are raised under glass. 
For the main-season or late crop they may be started in 
seed-beds in the open. Seeds for late cabbages are some- 
times planted directly in the field where the crop is to 
stand, bnt this is nnwise for the young plants cannot re- 
ceive proper care and the bugs get them. See that the 
young plants are stocky. It is customary to set the plants 
in the ground up to the first true leaves, and gardeners 
think that such setting gives better heads, but this opinion 
was not verified in three years' tests at Cornell. It is im- 
portant that the young plants make continuous growth, 
for if stunted they do not give as good crops. Young cab- 
bage plants withstand frost if properly grown. This 
"hardening" is accomplished by removing the sash from 
the hotbeds every day for a week or more before the plants 
are transferred to the field, sometimes for a part of the day 
and at other times all night if the weather is not too cool. 
For the early crop, the plants are set in the field as soon 
as the ground can be made ready. For the late or winter 
crop, the plants may be set in midsummer, July in New 
York. In small areas, transplanting 
is by hand, but in the larger areas it 
is performed by machines. Seeds 
and seedlings are seen (Figs. 24, 25). 
For general field crop, the early 
24. Seeds of cabbage scttiug is raiscd uudcr cheesecloth at 

(X 5) 

the North, to protect from insects and 
other dangers. The last transplanting in the field in cen- 
tral New York for main field crop is seldom later than 
July 1. If plants are grown under protection so that the 




Cabbage 



75 



loss is small, four acres may be set from one pound of 
seed. Intervals bet^\'een the rows under general farm con- 
ditions are commonly 3 feet and in the row 22 to 24 inches. 

The plants need 
tilling very often if 
they are to groAV 
rapidly. It is well 
to go through them 
the first time with a 
hand cultivator, as 
the plants are so 
small that a horse 
cultivator will cover 
some and damage 
others. But when 
the plants are well started, the horse and cultivator are 
employed. As the plants are but two feet apart for early 
crop, and the cultivator needs careful handling, let a 
boy lead the horse. Xearly all the work is performed with 
the horse, except a very little near the plants. Although 
they are very strong and rapid growers, few plants are 
more sensitive to neglect than the cabbage, or more favor- 
ably affected by extra good care. For very intensive work, 
the small early cabbages are sometimes set as close as 15 
by 24 inches ; in this case, hand tools are mostly used. 

Harvesting ; storing. 

To harvest, the head is bent over and the stalk severed 
at the base of the head by means of a large sharp butcher- 
knife. The stumps are usually left standing until the 
field is cleaned for winter or for another crop. The trim- 




Seedlings of cabbage (X %)• 



76 



Cole Crops 



mings are sometimes used for stock food. Soft springy 
heads are not mature enough for market, although they are 
sometimes shipped to meet an advance price; they do not 
keep long in good condition. A good cabbage head should 
feel firm and hard when pressed by the fingers; it should 
be free of decayed spots, cracks and blemishes. 

For market-garden and truck-growing purposes, cab- 
bages are usually shipped and sold by barrel or by crate; 

but the general 
late farm crop, 
used for kraut 
and for cattle 
feed, is handled 
by bulk in 
wagon, motor- 
truck and car. 

Cabbages are 
extensively stored 
for winter use 
and sale. The 
first requisite to 
success is to 
store only such kinds as will keep, exercising as much 
choice in this respect as in the storing -of apples. The 
early cabbages are naturally not of this kind. The flat 
or drumhead types usually do not keep well. The Danish 
Ballhead types are solid and long keepers. A success- 
fully stored cabbage should be plump, not shrivelled, 
free from disease, full of natural moisture. Cabbages are 
stored either in the ground (buried) or in buildings. 
They should be free of rot when put in storage, and 




Cabbage 



■77 



without bruises or injury from rough handling. Keep 
water from the middle of the head. The heads should be 
kept as cool as possible, without actually hard freezing. 
Be sure that they do not dry out. 

A method of burying by a successful cabbage-grower is 
as follows : Dig a trench about four feet wide and at least 
one foot deep. Pull up the cabbage without shaking the 
dirt from the roots and retaining all the leaves. Place the 
heads in the trench with the roots up, close together, and 
wrap the leaves closely around them. Throw a few inches 
of straw over them and then cover with earth, — not more 




27. Cabbages buried on the surface. 



than three or four inches at first. Two dangers must be 
guarded against: If too warm they will surely rot; or 
if they freeze too hard they will be spoiled when the frost 
comes out in the spring. After the weather becomes cold, 
freezing somewhat, put on more earth. A foot will do no 
harm in a cold climate. The entire lot may be lost by too 
hard freezing. If possible, dispose of the entire crop in the 
fall, even if obliged to sell at a low rate. ' The accompany- 
ing pictures (Figs. 26, 27) show methods of burying 
cabbages. The former is cabbage in a trench for home 
use,'' from E. W. De Baun, N". J. Extension Bull., Vol. 
1, No. 12 (1917), and the latter a "method of storing 



78 



Cole Crops 



cabbage on a small scale at the North/^ by L. C. Corbett, 
Farmers' Bull. 433 (1915). Sometimes cabbages are 
stored temporarily, for a month or so, by inverting them 
when dry on the sward of a pasture or mown meadow and 
covering with straw. 

For storing cabbages in a large way, special buildings 
are constructed. Sometimes the cabbages are piled in bins, 
but better results may be expected when the heads are laid 
on shelves, one layer deep or perhaps two or three layers. 
The outer loose leaves and all the stumps should be re- 
moved. The building should not freeze, and the ven- 
tilation should be such that the temperature can l)e kept 
two or three degrees above frost. In cold climates, provi- 
sion for light heat should be made to carry the house 
through severe weather. All water on the cabbages, as 
from drip and condensation and leakage, is to be avoided. 

Varieties; seed-growing. 

Varieties of cabbage are many. The Wakefield tj^es are 
prized for the early crop. For autumn and early winter 
use, and for kraut, the Drumheads and Flat Dutch type are 
popular. For winter storage the Danish Ballhead is exten- 
sively grown, from imported seed. Copenhagen, Empire 
Early, All-head, Enkhuizen are popular Iqnds for general 
field culture. The red cabbages are grown chiefly for 
pickling. The savoy cabbages, characterized by puckered 
or blistered leaves, are prized by amateurs for the deli- 
cate flavor; in this country they are grown mostly as an 
autumn crop. 

Success with cabbage depends largely on the quality of 
the seed. It is better to purchase seed from reliable seeds- 



Callage. Kale 



79 



men and specialists than to attempt to grow it. Stored 
cabbages, with stump and roots intact, are planted in fur- 
rows in spring, the head being cut deep (usually cross- 
wise) to allow the flower- shoots to come through. The 
stumps themselves, with head removed, often throw up 
flowering tops. The flowers mature rapidly, and seed is 
ripe in early summer. 

KALE OR BORECOLE; COI^LARDS 
As com/pared iviili callage, Icale requires less exacting 
care, is liardier, and the seed is lisually sown luhere the 
plants are to mature. Kale is groivn for its large leaves. 
It is raised mostly as a spring crop, seeds leing soivn the 
previous autumn; or as an autumn crop, seeds leing sown 
in spring. 

Plants usually are thinned to stand a foot or two in the 
row if very large plants are desired for the yield of individual 
leaves; or if the whole plant is to be gathered at once, the 
distances may be as close as 6 to 12 inches. The rows in gar- 
dens raay be 2 feet apart; in large plantations they may be 
somewhat farther to allow of horse tillage. The yield to the 
acre in commercial plantations is 200 to 300 barrels, with 250 
to 300 barrels perhaps an average fair crop. 

Kale is affected by the insects attacking cabbage, particu- 
larly by aphis, and often by harlequin cabbage bug. 

Kale may be likened to a cabbage plant that produces no 
head. In fact, it is a form of the cabbage species that 
is very near the original type. Greens from kale are prized 
in the market only very late or early in the season when 
many other kinds cannot be had in quantity. Small tender 
plants are best for eating, but leaves are often taken at 
intervals from older plants. This crop is much prized in 
England; the cool mild climate is well adapted to it. 



80 



Cole Crops 



In the North, kale is ordinarily sown in the spring, the 
seeds being placed where the plants are to stand. The rows 
may be far enough apart to allow of horse cultivation, and 
the plants may eventually stand, after the thinning 
process, from ten to twenty-four inches apart, allowing 
each plant an opportunity to develop to its best. The 
plants are not used until late fall or even winter. Often 
they are allowed to stand in the field all winter and the 
hardiest kinds are not injured by freezing, not even in the 
Northern States, if they are well niaturcd, although a light 
mulch on the ground is beneficial. The older leaves and 
leaf-stalks are usually improved by being frozen. The 
tenderest leaves are picked from the plants at intervals, 
or the whole plant may be harvested at once. 

For early spring use the seed ordinarily is sown in late 
summer or early autumn in the South and Middle South, 



frames; therefore fall-sown kale is relatively little known 
in the colder parts of the country. It is grown on a very 
extensive scale about Norfolk, Virginia, and elsewhere 




28. Scotch kale, showing a plant of large size. 



and the plants 
stand out of doors 
in winter and are 
ready for use 
very early in 
the spring. In 
the northernmost 
States, however, 
these young plants 
are likely to 
perish unless pro- 
t e c t e d under 



Kale, Brussels Sprouts 



81 



South,, and is shipped to the northern markets from isesv 
Yearns until the opening of spring. In the Norfolk region, 
August is a favorite month for sowing. 

The so-called Scotch (Fig. 28) and Siberian kales are 
chiefly grown in this countr}^ Other forms, much taller 
and producing heavy yield of herbage, are grown for cattle 
in some countries. 

Collar ds. — In the Southern States a kale-like plant 
known as collards is much grown, particularly in those re- 
gions so warm that good cabbages cannot be raised. The 
plants are grown as are cabbage plants, the seed being 
sown very early in spring, usually in a seed-bed under pro- 
tection, in order that the plants may get a good growth 
before hot weather sets in; or they may be sown in mid- 
summer for the fall growth in places farther north, where 
seasons are shorter. The leaves are ready for eating in 
the fall, or in very mild climates the plants may be left 
till spring. True collards are large plants, and 3x4 feet 
is not too great distance for them to stand. Sometimes 
3'oung cabbage plants are raised for greens and are known 
as collards. 

BRUSSELS SPROrTS 

The culture demanded by Tjrussels sprouts is essentially 
that required hy I'ale, except that the plants are always 
grown as a fall crop and tliey are usually started in seed- 
beds. The crop recjuires a longer season than cabbage. 
The plant is grown for the small heads along the main 
stalk. 

- Plants stand IS to 30 in. asunder in the row, and the rows 
are usually 3 ft. apart ; dwarf varieties may stand closer. A 
good plant should yield 1 qt. of sprouts or heads. In the 



Cole Crops 



Long Island sprouts region, plants are commonly spaced 30 x 36 
in. ; seed is sown June 1 to 15 ; 2,000 qts. to the acre is a fair 
average yield, but 3,000 qts. or even more are sometimes 
obtained. 

The diseases and insects are those that prey on the cabbage. 

Brussels sprouts is closely allied to kale, but along the 
straight strong stem little buds or miniature cabbages are 
borne, and these are the edible parts (Figs. 29, 30). 
A good " sprout,^' as one of the buds is called, averages 
one to two inches in diameter. When the sprouts are 

small and tender, they consti- 
tute one of the best and most 
delicately flavored vegetables 
of the cabbage tribe. The 
sprouts are gathered as they 
mature, from the bottom of 
the plant upward, and are sold 
by the quart. The adjacent 
leaf is cut off as soon as the 
sprout attains considerable 
size. 

In the North the seeds ordi- 
narily are sown rather late that 
the plants may not mature too 
early, for the sprouts are most 
prized in late autumn and 
winter. A large part of the 
growth is made in the cool 
weather of fall. If seeds are sown in June, the plants may 
be set in the field after the manner of cabbages in late 
July or August. In the Middle States the plants may be 




29. Plant of brussels sprouts 
before harvesting. 



Sp7'ouis. Cauliflower 



83 




left out of doors in winter as the light freezing does not 
injure the sprouts. In the northernmost States, however, 
plants are nsnally dng late in the fall and planted out in 
pits, something after the method em- 
ployed with celery and leeks. 

A good crop of brussels sprouts is 
dependent very largely on the strain of 
seed, as the plants tend to run down 
when careful selection in seed-raising 
is not practiced. A strong plant of the 
ordinary varieties makes a stalk 2 to 3 so. a single sprout. 

p , T . , T . , p nearly natural size 

feet high, producmg sprouts from near 
the base to the large canopy of leaves at the top. There 
are dwarf varieties, however, that grow 16 to 18 inches 
high that are in favor in short-season climates. 

CArLIFLOWEE; BROCCOLI 
CauUftoiuer is grown for its ivliite tender heads formed 
of the shortened and thiclcened floiuer-parts. From cah- 
hage, the culture differs chiefly as follows: The plant is 
more particular as to climate, requiring a relatively cool 
moist season; it is mostly less hardy; it demands a constant 
supply of soil-moisture; care must he exercised that the 
h eads do not suriburn; it is vitally important that th e very 
hest strain of seed is used. It is a crop of special local- 
ities. 

A good distance for main-crop cauliflower is 2 by 3 ft,, 
requiring upwards of 7.000 plants to the acre. The early 
smaller kinds may be 16 to 24 inches in the row. An ounce 
of seed for the production of 1.000 plants is a standard recom- 
mendation. An acre should yield 5.000 good heads. 

The diseases and insects are those of cabbage. 



84 



Cole Crops 



Cauliflower is difficult to grow to perfection in the 
hotter and dryer parts of the country. Its requirements 
are similar to those of the cabbage except that it is injured 
by hot suns and dry weather, and it therefore needs a cool 
and moist atmosphere. Along the seaboard of the North- 
eastern States, near the Great Lakes, and in the Puget 
Sound region, cauliflower is grown with success, as it is 
also in special locations in many parts of the country. 
Wherever irrigation can be practiced, it may also be grown 
successfully. In the American climate the effort is usu- 
ally made to secure the crop early or late and thereby to 
avoid growing it in the heat of midsummer. When thus 
grown, its range of adaptability is much extended. Under 
this system, the early crop is usually off in June or July. 
This crop is secured by growing the early varieties, as the 
Snowball and Paris, and by starting the plants under glass. 
The late crop is matured in autumn from seeds sown in 
summer in seed-beds. For this crop some of the later and 
larger-growing varieties may be used. In the southern- 
most parts of the United States cauliflower is grown as a 
winter crop from autumn-sown seeds. 

Every effort should be made to conserve the moisture by 
deep preparation of the land in the first place and by fre- 
quent surface tillage thereafter. Low but well-drained 
bottom lands are usually chosen in order that the plants 
may have a constant supply of moisture. On Long Island, 
however, where the cauliflower is very largely grown, this 
precaution is unnecessary, since the atmosphere is moist 
from proximity to the ocean and the water-table is not 
deep; in other coast regions the same may be true. In 
small areas, mulching is sometimes advised to hold the 



Caidlfloicer 



85 



moisture. In home gardens, of course, the plants may be 
watered. Land for cauliflower should be in a high state of 
fertility. 

Some of the practices in the growing of canliflower on 
opposit-e sides of the continent may be compared. In 
Ehode Island a large grower plants seeds about the 
middle of Mav. 1 r.unce to 300 feet of drill. I4 inch deep, 
the plants about 15 to the foot and not thinned; trans- 




plants to field by .July 1 for largest cmp : rows S^'o ^^^^ 
apart, plants in the row 16 inches : applies 1.500 to 3.000 
pounds 4—8—1: fertilizer (no manure), all put on with 
wheelbarrow side-dresser in strip 1.2 inches wide on either 
side of row : expects 15 per cent good heads when set on 
time (by July 1~) but far less for later plantings: earlv 
cauliflower, marketed in July and August, expects smaller 
percentage perfect heads. In eastern "Washington, a 
grower sows seed beginning of ]\Iar':li in hotbed for early 



86 



Cole Crops 



crop, transplants to coldframes and sets in field late in 
April; seed for late crop sown in the open May 10 to 14, 
plants set in field June 20 to July 1; rows 30 inches 
apart, plants 18 inches in row. 

The head of cauliflower is usually protected from the sun 
and whitened by tying the outer leaves over it. Plenty of 
room for ventilation should be allowed under the leaf- 
canopy, otherwise moisture may collect and the head may 
decay. The heads are harvested by cutting off, as are cab- 
bages; the leaves are then trimmed to form a border or 
cup, as in Fig. 31. The crop is harvested in barrels or 
crates. Heads should be wrapped and handled with much 
care. They cannot be stored any great length of time. A 
good head has a regular "curd'^ or substance, without 
breaks, uneven growths, or "buttons." 

Probably no other vegetable so quickly runs down from 
poor seed as the cauliflower. It is therefore exceedingly 
important that the choicest strain of seed be secured if the 
best results are to be attained. The best cauliflower seed 
is expensive, running as high as five to eight dollars an 
ounce; but cheap seed gives a smaller percentage of head- 
ing plants and the heads are usually irregular and broken. 
The cauliflower has a tendency to " button" or to throw 
up irregular growths from the head. This is due to poor 
seed, dry soil and too great heat, and also to allowing the 
plants to become checked and then starting them into 
growth by renewed tillage. The cauliflower seed of the 
market is grown in the Old World, the best of it coming 
from Denmark ; but the Puget Sound country is attracting 
attention as a region for the growing of cauliflower seed. 
Good seeds may be grown under glass. 



Broccoli. Kolilrdbi 



87 



There is a family of long-season and late-maturing 
cauliflowers, relatively little grown in this country, known 
under the general name of broccoli. This plant requires 
the entire season in which to mature, and in Europe it is 
often allowed to stand over winter and to make its heads in 
spring. The heads are usually smaller than those of cauli- 
flower. 

KOHLRABI 

The treatment required hy Taolilrabi is that demanded 
hy flat turnips. It is usually not transplanted. The plant 
is grown for the tuberous stem, which must not he allowed 
to become tough; rapid groivth is essential. 

The plants usually stand, after thinning, 6 to 10 in. apart, 
the rows being 18 in. to allow of tbe use of the wheel hoe 
or farther apart if horse tillage is to be employed. An ounce 
of seed should yield about 1,500 plants; 
if grown as a field crop for stock, 4 to 5 
lbs. of seed are usually allowed to the 
acre, and the crop may be 500 or 1,000 
bushels. 

The diseases and insects of cabbage 
may attack kohlrabi. 

Kohlrabi produces a turnip-like tu- 
ber just above the ground. It is grown 
mostly as a stock food and is rela- 
tively little known in North Amer- 
ica outside of Canada. However, it is 
a very excellent garden vegetable, of 
delicate flavor, if used before the tubers become large and 
stringy, when they are yet globular or oblate; as the 




88 



Cole Crops 



plants mature the tuberous part becomes elongated. They 
should be used when two to three inches in diameter; 

it is essential that they should 
have grown quickly and con- 
tinuously, otherwise they are hard 
and bitter. Successive sowings 
may be made at intervals of 
two or three weeks to continue 
the table supply. Do not hill up 
the earth about the tuber. 
White Vienna is the leading gar- 
den variety. Kohlrabi is cooked 
the same as turnips. The plant 
33. Leaf of kohlrabi, show- ^ud a Icaf HrG shown iu Figs. 32 

Ing its long petiole and r,T-i/l QQ 
characteristic blade. "^^^ '^^* 

PE-TSAI 

Grown as a potlierh for its great tuft of leaves and the 
solid lieads, and also as salad for the blanched and tender 
cores. It requires rich quich soil, abundance of water, 
cool season. In warm weather and on poor dry land it runs 
quickly to seed. Germination and growth are rapid. Good 
strains of seed are important. 

As yet, no standard practices have been developed in North 
America for the rearing of this crop. Its culture is to be 
likened to that of kale. Plants may stand eventually 10 to 18 
in. apart in the row, the plants being thinned for greens. 
Worms and aphis are to be expected, as for cabbage. 

Under the name of Chinese cabbage and celery cabbage, 
this plaQt is now attracting much attention, although a 
full report was made on it, after repeated trials, more 




Pe-tsai 



89 



than twenty-five years ago by the Cornell Experiment Sta- 
tion. It has long been more or less known in Europe, and 
in China it is an ancient vegetable of major importance. 
To foreigners in China it is known as Shantung cabbage, 
from the province where it is extensively grown. To the 




34. Pe-tsai as commonly grown for salad and greens (X V^). 

Chinese it is known as pe-ts'ai, peh-ts'ai, po-ts^ai, the first 
word or element meaning " white,^^ and ts^ai a green- 
vegetable or leaf -vegetable. 

It is unfortunate that the name " cabbage has become 
associated with this plant, for it represents a different 
species (if, in fact, not a different genus) from the cab- 



90 



Cole Crops 



bages, and it has none of the characteristic strong odors of 
them, nor is it so heavy for the digestion. It is a sweet 
delightful vegetable when properly grow^n, and as we learn 




how to raise and uti- 
lize it we may expect 
it to come into gen- 
eral use. Well-grown 
and neatly blanched 
pe-tsai is superior to 
lettuce as a salad. 



headed form (X 1/10). Undoubtedly we shall 

need to give special attention to seed-selection for Amer- 
ican conditions. 

"With us pe-tsai seems to be known mostly as a mass of 
loose foliage (Fig. 34:), often developing a core of white 
tender leaves, not unlike cos lettuce in appearance. The 
growers of Shantung produce solid heavy heads (Figs. 
35, 36, 3T), sometimes weighing 5 to 7 pounds. The seed 
is usually sown by them in August, often following millet. 
Land is well prepared, and bean-cake or other fertilizer is 
applied in the row. Seed is sown in rows; as the plants 
attain considerable leaf- 
age, they are thinned, 
the 3'oung plants being 
used as a potherb. If 
weather is dry, the 
plants are watered. The 
remaining plant? are 
left to form heads. If the rains of autumn are too 
heavy, the water is drained away. Too much wet makes 
a soft and yellow plant. By the approach of wint-er the 




36. Longitudinal section of Fig. 35. 



Pe-tsai. Cole Plants 



91 



heads are formed. The plants are pulled, the outer 
loose leaves removed, and stored in an outside cellar 
for winter use and 



page 96. 

THE COLE PLANTS AND THEIR KIN 

The true coles (i.e., generically kale plants, German koTil) 
are the thick-leaved blue-green plants of the kale-eabbage- 
cauliflower group, grown for their leaves or above-ground parts. 
To this group belongs also the kohlrabi (word the German 
form of cole-rape or caulo-rapa) , with a thickened stem; and 
properly also the rutabaga is a cole plant, although not com- 
monly so regarded in this country. The rutabaga (the word 
is of Swedish origin), known familiarly in N. America as 
" baga," is the Swedish turnip or " swede " of the English, and 
the Icohlril'be (cole-turnip) of the Germans; and it is also 
called turnip-rooted cabbage, recognizing thereby the cabbage 
appearance of the foliage and flowers. It should be said that 
in America the word cabbage is restricted to plants that pro- 
duce heads (the word is associated with the Latin caput, a 
head) but elsewhere it has a wilder application in the cole 
crops. 

The cole plants are of the genus Brassica ; to this genus 
belong also the turnips ; also the mustards, although certain 



As known in this 
country, the crop is 
started very early in 
spring for nse in warmer 
weather, or in Augnst or 
September for producing 
dense heads. 



sale. 





37. Pe-tsai as grown in China, the round form. 



see the description of it on 



92 



Cole Crops 



of them are separated by some botanists in the genus Sinapis. 
Therefore it is best to consider all these plants together, in 
this account mentioning only the .kinds of common cultiva- 
tion.* These brassicaceous plants are ditficult to define botan- 
ically, and the wild prototypes of some of them are not 
definitely known. Botanists differ in their interpretation of 
them. They are plants of immemorial domestication, and have 
been vastly modified. 

Brassica. Cruciferrr. About 40 species (if Sinapis is 
included) of annual, biennial and perennial herbs, of Europe 
and Asia, some of them now widely spread throughout the 
world as weeds. The table mustard of commerce is made 
from the seeds of some of the species. The botanical charac- 
ters of separation between the species lie to an important 
degree in the size, shape and position of the pods, and in the 
shape and length of the beak or top end of the pod beyond the 
valves or detaehinir sides. The seeds in these plants are 
globular in general form, without conspicuous surface mark- 
ings ; they are essentially l)lack in the cole plants and turnips, 
but may be brown or lighter colored in the mustards ; they 
weigh 1 to o mg. and the vitality is about 4 or 5 years. Of 
the cole plants, including rutabagas, the average seeds are 
approximately .3 or 4 mg. in weight : of turnips about 2 mg. 

A. Plant glaucous-blue or blue-green (varjnng to red), the foliage usu- 
allj' thick and more or less fleshy, the mature leaves glabrous; larger 
leaves on the flowering stems usually clasping: flowers large (1/3 
to 1 in. long), whitish yellow, cream-5'ellow or ochroleucous. the 
petals Ions-clawed, sepals mostly firmlv erect and not spreading. — 
COLES. 

B. Flowers large Cmosth'- exceeding in.) and very light colored 
(sometimes almost white), the inflorescence elongated at anthesis 
(4 to 10 in. long). 

Leaves large, mostly thick: stem not thickened. 

1. B. oleracea. 
Leaves relatively small, thinner: stem tuberous. 

2. B. cauiorapa. 

BB. Flowers smaller (not exceeding ^ in.), yellower, the part of 
the inflorescence in bloom at any time rarelj- exceeding 2 or 
3 in. and usually shorter than this. 

3. B. campestris. 



B of any of Cole Planis 



93 



AA. Plant green or essentially so, slightly or not glaucous, the foliage 
thin and often sparseiy setose-hairy on the ribs; stem leaves vari- 
ous: flowers small in. or less long), bright yellow or sulfur- 
yellow, the petals less prominently clawed, sepals separating or 
spreading. 

B. Stem leaves clasping or the petiole with a broadly expanded 
base.— TURXIP. 

4. B. Rapa. 

BB. Stem leaves petioled or sessile. — ^MUSTARDS. 
C. Pod glabrous (not hairy). 

D. The ripe pods long, spreading away from the stem. 
E. Leaves more or less lobed or notched, but not 
deeply cut. 

Radical and lower blades tapering to winged mid- 
rib. 5. B. pekinensis. 
Radical and lower stem leaves distinctly peti- 
oled. 6. B. rugosa. 
EE. Leaves deeply cut. 7. B. japonica. 
DD. The ripe pods short, closely appressed to the stem. 

8. B. nigra. 

CC. Pod hairy. 9. B. alba. 

1. B. oleracea, Linn. Sp. PL 667. Glaucous perennial with 
woody and often branching stem 2 to 5 ft. tall, native on the 
sea-cliffs and shores of western Europe: Ivs. thick, large, V2 
to 2 ft. long, obovate or oblong in general outline, often with 
several small lobes along the petiole, the margins irregularly 
lobed or sinuate, often obscurely dentate, and usually more 
or less undulate and crisped: flowers large to 1 in. long) 
in an elongated panicle, whitish yellow: pod 3 to 4 in. long, 
14 in. across at maturity, with a conical beak i/4 to % in. 
long, the valves with a strong central rib. — As B. oleracea 
itself is not cultivated, and apparently not eaten in the wild 
state, a full description is not necessary here. In the wild it 
gives little suggestion of the cabbages, brussels sprouts and 
cauliflowers, although it is much like some of the kales. Under 
domestication this species has produced a multitude of forms, 
some of the main races of which may be described. 

Tar. ramosa, 'Alef. Landw. Fl. 234. 1SG6. Tree Cabbage 
or Teee Kale. Thousaxd-headed Kale. Stem erect, 3 to 6 ft. 
or even more, woody at the base, more or less branched above, 
the leaves scattered rather than in a terminal clump or rosette. 
— Grown mostly in Europe, and chiefly for cattle forage. 



94 



Cole Crops 



Yar. acephala. DC. Syst. Nat. ii, 583. 1821. Kale, Collard. 
Plant very short to tall, the stem simple or only sparingly 
branched : leaves various, aggregated toward the top of the 
stem, oblong to oval to roundish in outline and lobed toward 
the base, in some forms much crisped and curled, the midrib 
and petiole usually thick and stout. 

Yar. gem m if era, DC. Syst. Xat. ii, 583. 1821. Brussels 
Sprouts. Stem erect, 1% to 3 ft. tall, bearing large edible 
buds 1 in. or so in diam. in the axils : leaves short and broad, 
short-oblong to nearly circular, usually with one or two large 
rounded lobes near the base but sometimes unlobed, the 
margins of the main leaves not notched or dentate, petiole 
not winged. 

Yar. capitata, Linn. Sp. PI. 607. Cabbage. Plant low and 
squat, with a very short stem, producing one large compact 
terminal head 4 to 12 in. in diam. : leaves large, spreading, 
oblong-obovate to nearly circular, the main ones mostly unlobed 
and the blade tapering into a short margined petiole, margins 
undulate and more or less obscurely toothed. — A race or sub- 
variety is Yar. sahauda, Linn. (Yar. huUata, DC), the Savoy 
cabbages, with blistered or bullate leaves (the word sahauda 
means Savoy an). Recently there has come into cultivation a 
" green-glazed " cabbage, with bright green shining foliage. 

Var. botrytis, Linn. Sp. PI. 667. Broccoll Caulifloweb. 
Plant of the stature of Yar. capitata, but bearing long-oblong 
or elliptic mostly undivided upright or incurving leaves with 
margins entire or minutely denticulate, and the flower-clusters 
(malformed stems and flowers) rather than the leaves con- 
densed into a head. — Sometimes broccoli is separated as Sub- 
var. cymosa, Duchesne, and cauliflower as Subvar. caulifiora, 
DC. (The word totrytis means " a bunch of grapes"; here it 
refers to the forms in the broccoli or cauliflower head.) 

2. B. caulorapa, Pasq. Cat. Ort. Bot. Nap. 17. 1867. {B. 
oleracea var. gongylodes, Linn. Sp. PI. 667. B. oleracea 
var. caulorapa, DC.) Kohlrabi. Plant low and erect, 1 to 2 
ft. tall over all, the stem thickened just above the ground 



Botany of Cole Plants 



95 



and turnip-like, foliage arising from the tuber : leaves small 
and thinnish, the blades 4 to 8 in. long, oval or round-oval 
to oblong, the margins prominently toothed or notched, the 
base more or less irregularly lobed or shaped, the petiole slen- 
der and thin and often bearing a few detached small leaf- 
lobes, the base expanded and clasping. — Probably an offshoot 
of the composite species B, oleracea, but marked in its stem 
and foliage characters; grown for the stem tuber (the ante- 
Linnean name gongylodes means " roundish " ) . 

3. B. campestris, Linn. var. Napobrassica, DC. Syst. 
Nat. ii, 589. 1821. {B. oleracea var. Napobrassica, Linn. Sp. 
PI. 667. B. Napobrassica, Mill. Gard. Diet. ed. 8 no. 2. 1768. 
B. Napus var. Napobrassica, Reichb, in Moessl. Handb. 
Gewachsk. ed. 3, ii, 1220. 1833.) Rutabaga. Swedish Tuknip. 
Plant in flower or fruit 2 to 3 ft. high, branched, erect but 
sometimes falling with the weight of seed: root a fusiform 
or oblong (rarely globular) tuber with a long neck: radical 
Ivs. long-stalked, 12 to 24 in. long over all, the blade 
oblong in outline, strongly pinnate-lobed, the terminal lobe 
broad and obtuse, the others successively smaller downward 
and semi-opposite or scattered, some of the smaller parts 
entirely separate and remote on the petiole, the margins vari- 
ously and irregularly dentate or notched, the mature leaves 
mostly wholly glabrous but sometimes bearing scattered set^e 
on the ribs, the small leaves immediately succeeding the seed- 
leaves more or less sparsely hairy ; upper stem leaves becoming 
oblong to lance-oblong, strongly sessile-auriculate, notched, den- 
tate, or nearly entire : flowers light yellow, in elongating clus- 
ters : pod about 2 in. long exclusive of the conical beak, which 
is about % in. long. — Sometimes the white-fleshed and yellow- 
fleshed rutabagas are separated, in which case the former may 
take the name Subvar. communis, DC. and the latter Subvar. 
Rutabaga, DC. ; the botanical origin of these races is not 
cleared up. 

Brassica campestris itself is a weed in and near cultivated 
areas, not producing an enlarged root. Rape is often con- 



96 



Cole Crops 



sidered to oe oi che same species, B campestris var. Napus, 
Babington {B. JS/apus, Linn.). 

4. B. Rapa, Linn. Sp. PI. 666. {B. campestris var. Rapa, 
Hartm. Handb. Skand. Fl. ed. 6, 110. 1854.) Turnip. Plant 
green, slightly or not at all glaucous, the foliage usually rough- 
ish to the hand: root tuber flattened or globular, sometimes 
oblong white- or yellow-fleshed, the top part often purple, the 
neck short : root leaves not thick, mostly long-pinnatifid, the 
lobes in several irregular uneven pairs and successively smaller 
downward, but sometimes tapering gradually from the broad 
blade to a narrowly w^inged petiole and without large lobes; 
leaves usually sparsely setose-hairy on the ribs beneath, at 
least in the young expanding foliage; upper stem leaves obo- 
vate to oblong to lanceolate in outline, the margins of the 
larger ones irregular and notched, often narrowed toward the 
base, clasping: flowers small (14 to % in. long), bright yellow, 
the clusters short in anthesis : pods about ll^ in. long exclu- 
sive of the slender conical beak.— Nativity undetermined. 
(Rapum is a Latin word for turnip.) 

5. B. pekinensis, Rupr. Fl. Ingr. i, 96. 1860. (Sinapis 
pekinensis, Lour. Fl. Cochin, 400. 1790. B. Pe-tsai, Bailey, 
Bull. 67 Cornell Exp. Sta. 190. 1894.) Pe-tsai. An erect 
green soft-foliaged annual of quick growth: radical leaves 
many, large, veiny and crinkled, 12 to 20 in. long, oblong or 
broadly obovate in outline, the top broad and rounded, taper- 
ing below and vanishing to the lower end of the very broad 
whitened midrib, the upper margins wavy, the lower margins 
jagged-notched; stem leaves multiform, sometimes broad and 
clasping, sometimes merely sessile, sometimes petioled, in shape 
various, the margins notched or crinkled or in the upper leaves 
entire: flowers light yellow, about % in. long, the cluster 
short in anthesis: pod stout, 1 to 2 in. long exclusive of the 
short cone-shaped blunt beak. — Probably native in China. 
See page 88. 

6. B. rugosa, Bailey, Bull. 67 Cornell Exp. Sta. 191. 1894; 
Prain, Bull. 4, Dept. Land Rec. and Agr., Bengal, 11. 1898, 



Botany of Mustards 



97 



(Sinapis rugosa, Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii, 122. 1S32.) Bkoad-leaf 
MusTAKD. Plant green, producing abundance of foliage, 
annual: radical leaves large and quick-growing, more or less 
hairy wlien young, usually blistered or bullate, 1 ft. or more 
long and three-fourths as broad, obovate or oval, angled or 
notched, separately cut or lobed below on the narrowing sides, 
the petiole broad or stout ; lower stem leaves of similar shape, 
large (blade 4 to 5 in. long and nearly as broad) notched 
and angled, distinctly stalked; upper stem leaves oblong to 
lanceolate, nearly or quite entire, usually sessile or tapering 
to base, sometimes clasping : flowers about 14 in- long, bright 
yellow, the clusters short in anthesis : pod 1 to 2 in. long, 
exclusive of the rather slender acute beak. — Probably native 
in China ; usually cultivated as " Chinese mustard." 

7. B. japonica, Sieb. acc. to Miq. Prol. Fl. Jap. 74. 1865-6. 
(Sinapis japonica, Thunb. Fl. Jap. 262. 1784. B. nigra var. 
japonica, Schulz, in Pflanzenr. iv, 105, p. 79. 1919.) Curled 
Mustard. Very like B. i^ugosa, and perhaps a form of it, 
distinguished by the frizzled and cut foliage. — An old garden 
favorite. Now grown under several forms, as Giant Southern 
Curled, Fordhook Fancy, Ostrich Plume, California Pepper- 
grass, the last one with finely cut leaves. 

8. B. nigra, Koch, in Roehl. Deutschl. Fl. ed. 3, iv, 713. 
1833. (Sinapis nigra, Linn. vSp. PI. 668.) Black Mustard. 
Tall branching annual, 3 to 10 ft. high, with slightly glaucous 
glabrous or sparsely hairy stem which is often reddish: leaves 
oval to oblong, obtuse or short-acute, notched and variously 
lobed, slender-petioled : flowers light yellow, about i/4 in. long, 
terminating slender racemes : pod short ( % to 1 in. long over 
all), 4-sided, stout, with a short conical beak, becoming closely 
appressed to the rachis of the raceme : seeds small, brown or 
brown-black, weighing about 1 mg. — Europe ; now widely spread 
as a weed. Employed as a source of table mustard, manu- 
factured from the seeds ; sometimes mentioned as grown for 
the early radical leaves, for greens, but there are better kinds. 

9. B. alba, Rabenh. Fl. Lusit. i, 184. 1839. (Sinapis alba, 
Linn. Sp. PI. 668.) White Mustard. Erect more or less hairy 



98 



Cole Crops 



annual, 2-3 ft. : Ivs. oblong, all petioled, obovate or oval in 
outline, deeply pinnately lobed, the margins bluntly notched : 
flowers about % in. long, light yellow, terminating elongating 
racemes : pods squarrose (at about right angles with the 
rachis), hairy, with a flat beak longer than the body: seeds 
few, large, yellowish or light brown, weighing 3 to 4 mg. — 
Europe; sometimes run wild. Cult, sometimes for greens, par- 
ticularly under the name of White London mustard. 



CHAPTER Y 



SALAD CROPS 

Lettuce Parsley 
Endive and chicory Chervil 
Cress Celery 

Corn-salad ^ 

As a general statement, it may he said that salad plants 
require cool moist soil, and a quick continuous growth if 
the dest results are attained. They are often benefited hy 
a special application of quickly available fertilizers during 
growth, particularly of nitrogen in those species desired 
chiefly for a rapid growth of leaves. Most of them do not 
require occupation of the ground the entire year. 

The plants included in this chapter are a somewhat mis- 
cellaneous company, and it is difficult to state principles 
that apply to all of them. They are closely connected with 
the potherb crops. Celery and lettuce have little in com- 
mon, hut the above grouping seems to be as satisfactory as 
any. Some of the plants are used both as salads and pot- 
herbs, as endive ; but they are placed in the group to which 
their most common use assigns them. A salad is eaten un- 
cooked; a potherb or greens^' is boiled. Horse-radish 
is properly a salad plant, or a relish plant. 

On the necessity of giving extra care to the rearing of 
salad plants, Waugh writes (Bull. 54, Yt. Exp. Sta.) : 
" Doubtless all vegetables ought to be fresh ; but with salad 

(99) 



100 



Salad Crops 



plants the demand is imperative. A good salad cannot be 
made from wilted or stale plants. For this reason the best 
salads are practically prohibited to people who do not have 
their own gardens. The plants should be freshly picked 
within half an hour of meal time. Up to this time they 
should have been rapidly and vigorously grown. A rich 
spot of ground, plenty of water, clean and thorough cul- 
ture with favorable weather, must combine for best results. 
Dry, tough, wilted, weed-choked plants are not worth gath- 
ering. Yet most of the true salad plants reach edible 
maturity so quickly that any reasonable attention should 
secure good returns. Here again it is not time and money 
that are required for success, but a little thoughtful 
promptness of action." 

In these days, when we begin to know something of the 
value and office of vitamines, contained in the herbage of 
plants, we should have a new appreciation of the impor- 
tance of salads and potherbs to the welfare of mankind. 
It is the result of long and tried experience that many 
races of men have come to place great reliance on green 
food. 

LETTUCE 

Lettuce is a liardy, cool-season, short-season succession- 
or companion-crop, requiring mellow moist soil, quicMij 
availaNe fertilizers and continuous growth from start to 
finish. In tJiis country it is grown in the open ground 
throughout the season, and it is also extensively forced 
under glass. It is very easy of cultivation in rich and well- 
prepared land. 

Lettuce is commonly grown in rows 8 to 14 in. apart, and 
thinned eventually, as the young plants are taken out, to S to 12 



Lettuce 



101 



in. in the row; grown as a field crop tilled by horse, the 
rows may be spaced as far as 18 in. For early use start in 
forcing-house, frame or kitchen. Sow in succession till warm 
weather. In late summer or September, sowing may be made 
for the autumn crop. In the South it may stand out over 
winter and resume growth in spring. Calculate on 1,000 plants 
for each ounce of seed. Most of the forcing varieties, started 
under glass are good for early use, as Tenuisball, Boston Mar- 
ket, Simpson. For summer use, plant varieties that withstand 
heat, as Deacon, Hanson, Summer Cabbage, Cos. A good com- 
mercial acre should yield upwards of 30,000 heads. 

Rhizoctonia, or bottom-rot (RJiizoctonia solani) . — Plants 
in any stage of development may be affected. Rusty slightly 
sunken areas on the leaf-stalk where it comes in contact with 
the ground and the total rotting of the leaf-blade are indica- 
tive of this disease. The entire head may later rot and 
remain as a blackened erect stump. Frequently the disease 
causes a damping-off of seedlings. Control: Soil sterilization 
in the greenhouse will prevent the development of bottom-rot. 
Thorough drainage and frequent cultivation to dry out the 
surface soil will reduce somewhat the development of the 
disease in the field. The more erect types of lettuce are appar- 
ently less affected. 

Drop, or sclerotinia rot (Sclerotinia Uhertiana) . — Affected 
plants become water-soaked and collapse with a soft rot in 
a few hours after showing evidence of this disease. White 
felts of mycelium with black fungous bodies imbedded in them 
develop on the under surface of the leaf. This is a serious 
disease of field and greenhouse lettuce, the seriousness being 
increased by the fact that the organism will attack almost any 
host. Control: Thorough soil sterilization, when practicable, 
will control the disease. Prompt removal of affected plants 
and drenching the soil with copper sulfate solution has met 
with considerable success. All refuse should be removed and 
destroyed. 

Gray mold, or botrytis eot (Botrytis cinerea). — Usually but 
one leaf or one side of a plant is first attacked. The disease 



102 



Salad Crops 



may spread until the destruction of the entire plant results. A 
characteristic gray fungous growth from which the name of 
the disease is derived occurs on the rotted tissues. The para- 
site is most destructive in greenhouses. Control: Care in ven- 
tilating and watering will do much toward preventing the de- 
velopment of this rot. The prompt removal of all debris is 
desirable. 

Anthracnose {Marssonina panattoniana) . — Leaf lesions 
appear first as somewhat circular water-soaked spots which 
later become brown. In the later stages, the affected tissues 
die and drop out, giving the leaf a shot-holed appearance. On 
the midrib the brownish spots are sunken and elongated. 
Control: Prompt removal of affected plants, together with 
rotation of crops in the field, is desirable. Sanitation in the 
greenhouse is important. Slightly higher temperature than is 
usual, together with careful ventilation, will check the disease. 

Mildew {Bremia lactuccr). — Yellow areas are evident on the 
upper side of affected leaves and a w^hite mildew is present 
on the under surface of such spots. Mildew is primarily a 
greenhouse disease, although it may occur in the field in cool 
weather. Control: Care in ventilating and watering will pre- 
vent the development of this disease. A slight increase in tem- 
perature may tend to check its development. 

Tip-burn. — A blackening of the leaf margins, frequently 
evident only on the inner leaves, is characteristic of tip-burn. 
Apparently this disease is not due to a casual organism but 
to unfavorable environmental conditions. Control: Careful 
watering and ventilating in the greenhouse W'ill aid in pre- 
venting this trouble. There is some indication that an excess 
of nitrate and excessive applications of fertilizers in midsum- 
mer may increase the development of tip-burn. 

Cabbage looper (Autographa 'brassicce) and Celery looper 
(Autographa falcigera). — Both of these common looping cater- 
pillars sometimes attack lettuce. As an arsenical cannot be 
used, hand-picking is the only available measure. 

Plant-lice (several species). — Lettuce both in the green- 



Letiuce 



103 



house and in the field is liable to infestation. Tobacco dust is 
employed. In the greenhouse fumigate with nicotine. 

Cutworms and slugs sometimes attack lettuce. See pages 
430, 437. 

Lettuce is the standard salad plant. It is good in itself, 
and both market and kitchen practices are well under- 
stood. It needs no explanation. The culture is also sim- 
ple. It does not occupy the land the entire year. It is a 




38. Common head lettuce, seen from above. 



succession-crop or companion-crop. It is grown in the 
North spring to autumn and the South autumn to spring. 
It readily adapts itself to forcing in glasshouses. It grows 
well in hotbeds and frames. It may be made to stand 
much frost. For all these reasons, it is a year-round 
crop. 

Lettuce is commonly grown as a seed-bed crop. The 
early crop is usually started in the house or in hotbeds and 



104 



Salad Crops 



transplanted to the field ; or some of it may mature directly 
in the hotbed or frame. In some cases, particularly for 
the midseason and later crops, the seed may be sown where 
the plants are to stand. In large-ai;ea lettuce-farming in 

the Northern States, prin- 
cipally on reclaimed muck 
land, seed is sown direct- 
ly in the field and the 
plants (if Big Boston) are 
thinned to stand 10 to 14 
inches in the row, the rows 
14 inches or more apart. 
Two or three pounds of 
seed are required to the 
acre. In good weather 
and on well-prepared land, 
the crop is ready to har- 
vest in six to eight weeks. 
Sowings are made every 
week or so till the begin- 
nino^ of Auo^ust. 

Lettuce may be fol- 
lowed by cabbages, early cauliflower, celery or various 
other succession-crops. Sometimes lettuce is transplanted 
between the plants of early cabbages or cauliflowers, 
since it will mature before the other plants need all the 
space. If one's soil is moist, and particularly if the 
exposure is somewhat cool, the ordinary spring lettuce 
may be grown with success throughout the summer. Suc- 
cessional sowings may be made as often as once in ten 
days to three weeks. The earliest spring lettuce taken 




39. Cos or Romaine lettuce (X 1/6).— 
Lactuca sativa var. longifolia. 



Lettuce 



105 



from the open is usually started in frames or forcing- 
houses, or sometimes in boxes in the house. It transplants 
easily. 

The crop may be grown in autumn from seeds sown 
late in August or in September. In such case it is best to 
sow in a seed-bed, because the moisture conditions can be 
controlled better, and a field is usually too dry at that time 
of the year to give quick germination. It is essential that 
lettuce make a quick and succulent growth to be at its best. 
For the late spring and summer crops the seed is usually 
sown rather thickly and the thinnings are used on the 
table. The plants that are to attain the largest size should 
stand as much as a foot apart. 

Lettuce usually does best in soil that is loose and warm, 
or one that the garden- 
ers call "quick." Heavy 
lands, and particularly 
those with much clay, 
are ill-adapted to the 
crop. To secure a quick 
growth, it is sometimes 
advisable to apply ni- 
trate of soda soon after 
the plants are set. The 
nitrate is usually sprin- 
kled broadcast on the 
surface and raked or 
cultivated in. An appli- 
cation at rate of 200- 
eSOO pounds to the acre may be made with good results. 
The surface should be kept well tilled to conserve the 




106 



Salad Crops 




Seeds (properly fruits) of 
lettuce (X 6). 



moisture and to promote all those activities that result in 
rapid growth. 

Although the lettuce product is usually spoken of as a 
" head/' there are many kinds of 
leaf-clusterSj and some of the 
kinds are known technically as 
" head lettuce " or " cabhage let- 
tuce. The Boston Head lettuce 
is one variet}^, as Simpson and 
Grand Eapids are others. " Head 
lettuce " is grown the same as 
other kindSj special care being 
exercised to get good seed. 
Started indoors in April and 
transplanted to the open in good warm soil, the crop is 
ready in June. Sometimes heads are blanched by tying up 
the leaves, but only a few heads should be treated at a 
time, for they are very likely to decay, particularly if the 
weather is. wet. Lettuce usually does not head well in 
warm weather ; a par- 
tial exception are the 
Cos lettuces, which 
are very different in 
appearance and make 
a less solid head. 
Usually, however, the 
summer product is 
"leaf lettuce " or 
" bunching lettuce,'^ the product of many non-heading 
varieties. Figs. 38, 39, 40 are widely different forms of 
lettuce; Figs. 41 and 42 show the seeds and seedlings. 




Seedlings of lettuce (X V2). 



Lettuce 



107 



The Cos lettuces, or Eomaines, produce rather loose 
heads, but the midribs are usually very broad and in the 
interior of the head are likely to be somewhat blanched. 
Gardeners sometimes tie up the heads at the top to further 
the blanching, but the plants must be watched carefully to 
avoid rot. Eomaine is grown the same as other lettuce, 
but it is likely to stand longer in the field before running 
to seed. Sown late, it makes very acceptable autumn 
salad. 

For market, the lettuce plant is cut just above ground, 
the outer leaves are removed and the heads or bunches are 
shipped in ventilated crates or barrels. The plants should 
not be cut for this purpose in the middle of the day, for 
they soon wilt. 

Seed of lettuce is groAvn extensively in California. 
Yields vary with the variety and the handling; one pound 
of marketable seed may be had from 30 to 60 plants. 

The Lettuce Plant 

Lactuca. Compositcr. Genus of weedy herbs, perhaps 100 
species in many parts of the world, some of them native in 
the United States and Canada and others introduced weeds ; 
annuals, biennials, perennials. 

L. sativa, Linn. Sp. PI. 795. L. Scariola, Linn. var. sativa, 
Clarke, Compos. Ind. 263. 1876. Garden Lettuce. Annual 
erect smooth herb with milky juice, producing a rosette or 
cluster of radical leaves; stem 3-4 ft. high, leafy, branching 
above, the many slender branches bearing numerous clasping- 
conduplicate cordate mostly acute bracts : radical leaves (used 
in salad) various, 5 to 10 in. long, thin, spreading, roundish 
to oblong to obovate to Ungulate, obtuse and usually very blunt, 
margins plane or undulate, entire or sinuate-dentate, often 
somewhat lobed or erose toward the narrowing base, the petiole 
very short or none, the blade with many prominent ribs aris- 



108 



Salad Crops 



ing from the broad midrib ; stem leaves similar in shape to 
the root leaves of the particular variety, alternate, clasping- 
auricnlate, mostly finely apiculate-serrate, passing into bracts 
toward the inflorescence: flower-heads erect, on short or long 
pedicels, about 12- to 16-flowered, opening in morning and clos- 
ing about midday, florets all perfect and each with a yellow 
5-toothed ray ; receptacle naked ; involucre cylindrical, becom- 
ing conical in fruit, scales lanceolate to ovate, all appressed, 
the outer ones successively shorter ; ovary lenticular, bearing 
many white pappus bristles at its constricted summit ; style- 
branches short: acheue ("seed" of gardeners) white or black, 
lenticular-oblong, broadest toward the top, strongly several- 
nerved, bearing a long slender beak on which the pappus is 
carried ; when the beak drops or is removed in threshing, the 
remaining " seed " is % to in. long and weighs 1 to 1% mg., 
retaining its vitality about 5 years. — Unknown in a native state 
and considered to be a modification of Lactuca Scariola, Linn., 
an Old World weed now also widely spread in this country. 
In lettuce fields " rogues " now and then occur strongly sug- 
gestive of L. Scariola. Lettuce has been cultivated so long 
that its history is inexact. Yar. capitata, Linn. Sp. PI. 795 
(L. capitata, DC, Prodr. vii, pt. i, 138. 1838). Head Lettuce, 
has radical leaves forming a more or less dense ball. Yar. 
crispa, Linn. Sp. PI. 795 (L. crispa, DC. I.e.). Curled Lettuce, 
has the leaves cut and fringed or crisped. 

Yar. longifolia. Lam. Diet, iii, 403. 1789. (L. romana, Gar- 
sault, Trait. PI. et Anim. Usage Med. ii. 196, t. 315. 1767.) Cos 
Lettuce. Romaine Lettuce. Plant forming an upright col- 
umnar or loaf-shaped loose head, the radical leaves obovate to 
oblong, rounded or obtuse, 8 to 12 in. long and 4 to 6 in. broad, 
the midrib usually very wide; stem leaves long, mostly oblong 
or obovate, obtuse. 

Yar. angustana, Irish, Cyclo, Amer. Hort. 867. 1900; Bailey, 
Gent. Herb. 1 :49. 1920, with botanical diagnosis. {L. angustana, 
Hort.). AsPAEAGUS Lettuce. Plant not forming a compact 
head : radical and lower stems narrow- or oblong-lanceolate, 
long-attenuate, entire or irregularly sinuate-dentate, plane, 8 



Endive. Chicory 



109 



to 12 in. long and IV2 to 3 in. wide; upper leaves lanceolate- 
attenuate, amplexicaul. — Grown tor its tliick edible stem ; 
quickly runs to seed. It is little known in N. America. 

ENDIVE AND CHICORY 

Endive affords a good supplement to lettuce, since it is 
essentially a summer and fall crop and thrives at a season 
when lettuce is somewhat difficult to grow to perfection. 
The culture is not unlike that of lettuce, except that the 
plant requires a longer time in which, to mature. It is 
more popular as an autumn and lointer crop, seeds being 
sown in summer. The plant is used both as salad and 
greens. 

To obtain large beads or tops, plants sbould stand 12 to 16 
in. apart each way, but tliey are often grown as close as 8 or 10 
in. They may be grown in rows 18 to 20 in. apart for easier 
tillage, but the plants should not be crowded if they are not 
eaten vrhen young 
and small. One 
ounce of seed 
should supply a row 
100 to 150 ft. long. 
Two months or less 
should produce 
edible tops. 

Diseases and in- 
sects appear not to 
be troublesome to 
endive. 

In respect to 
soil, tillage, dis- 
tance apart and other treatment, the care of endive differs 
little from that of lettuce. Seeds may be started under 




43. Young plant of endive (X 1/5). 



110 



Salad Crops 



glass and transplanted to the open, although such plants 
are thought to run more quickly to seed; good tops may 
be had in late spring and early summer. Or seeds may 
be sown in June for plants to be used in August and 
September. Seeds may be sown in summer for the autumn 
and winter crop, and this is the better adaptabihty of the 
plant. 

The top may be harvested entire (Fig. 43) or only cer- 
tain leaves taken at intervals; by the latter method the 




44. Endive blanching under paper covers. 

plant may be kept going most of the season. It is known 
mostly as a salad plant with us ; but it is an excellent pot- 
herb, the greener or younger plants often being taken for 
this purpose. Endive is little known to people of Ameri- 
can parentage, although it is much prized by foreigners, 
and there is considerable demand for it in the larger cities. 
It deserves to be better understood. 

The green rank leaves are likely to be bitter and tough. 
It is customary to blanch the interior leaves of the crown 



Endive 



111 






Seeds (fruits) of en- 
dive (about 4^2). 



or head by gathering all the leaves into a bunch and tying 
them near the top. This tying is performed two or three 
weeks before the plant is desired for use. In very hot and 
wet weather the heads are sometimes 
blanched in ten days; but under or- 
dinary conditions it requires nearly 
or quite twice that length of time. 
If heavy rains and cloudy weather 
follow the tying, the crowns must 
be examined frequently to see that 
they are not decaying. After the 
interior leaves are well blanched, they must be used 
quickly or decay will set in; they should be dry when tied. 
The later plants, taken up in autumn, are sometimes 
blanched by being set in cellars or pits or coldframes; 
or if the heads are packed securely in Avell-ventilated bar- 
rels, they may blanch in transportation. 

On the blanching of endive, S. X. Green comments as 
follows (^-lo. Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. Xo. 32), with particular 

reference to treat- 
ment of the crop 
gro^Ti under glass 
(Fig. U) : """The 
blanching of the 
greenhouse grown 
crop is the most dif- 
ficult part of the 
culture of endive 
under glass, and as yet no perfectly satisfactory method has 
been found. In the field, especially in the cool fall months, 
blanching is not difficult. Any sort of a covering that will 




Seedlings of endive (X 



112 



Salad Crops 



exclude the light seems to answer the purpose. Planks, 
mats or straw are commonly used. In other cases, each 
individual plant is tied up, the outer leaves being drawn 
towards the center and a rubber or string being 
used to keep them in place. Loss is apt to occur 
if the leaves are too closely compacted, and the 
cord should be somewhat below the center of the 
plant, allowing the blanching to proceed as with 
celery. In the greenhouse, where the soil is 
damp, the air moist and the ventilation slow 
when blanching by any method, loss by rot is 
sure to occur unless much 
precaution is taken. Careful 
ventilation and temperature 
regulation are necessary. In 
a general way, the lower the 
temperature the slower the 
blanching process, from 2 to 3 
weeks or more being necessary. We have found for our 
conditions that a paper-covered frame gives satisfactory re- 
sults. This excludes the light, allows fair circulation of air 
and there is little loss from rot." The method may pro- 
vide a suggestion for other than glasshouse conditions. 

The achnese or " seeds," and the young plants coming 
from them, are seen in Figs. 45 and 46; it is interesting 
to compare them with chicory (in Figs. 48 and 4^). 



47. 

Witloof 
(X %). 




Seeds (fruits) of 
chicory (X 4). 



Chicory 

Chicory is very closely related to endive, hut the leaves 
(for salads and greens) are mostly desired in ivinter or 
spring from roots that have been grown for the purpose 



Chicory 



113 



and taken up on the approach of cold weather. The effort 
is to grow strong roots and to have them in prime condi- 
tion at the end of the growing season. The culture is sim- 
ple, as for carrots or parsnips. 

While the culture of chicory (or succory, an old name) 
is easy, the grower must know for what purpose he is to 
rear the plant. The purposes may be four : ( 1 ) to obtain 
the green leaves to be used as potherbs; (2) to produce 
barbe-de-capucin (^^friar^s beard") and witloof, which 
are the colorless leaves arising from stored roots; (3) to 
secure the young green roots themselves, of certain vari- 
eties, for cooking and 
eating, a use very little 
known with us; (4) to 
raise roots to dry for 
the making of a 
substitute for coffee. 
The last category does 
not come within the 

scope of this book. "^^''"''^ seedlings (X 2/3). 

Only the first two uses may be considered here. 

The roots are grown as are parsnips or carrots, and 
harvestings of leaves may be made throughout the growing 
season. One may also leave the roots in the ground over 
winter and gather the crown of leaves in the spring, or one 
may take them to the cellar or greenhouse and secure the 
leaves in winter. It is usually preferable to grow a new 
lot of plants each year. 

For the production of blanched leaves, the strong roots 
are usually taken up in autumn. The roots are buried in 
a sloping direction in sand in pit or cellar, the crown 




114 



Salad Crops 



projecting an inch or so above the earth. The place should 
be kept dark. In a month or less, the small leaves are 
produced. 

Witloof and barbe (barbe-de-capncin) are different 
forms of white forced chicory tops. Witloof ("white 
leaf ") is a compactor head than barbe, being raised from 
a strain or variety of roots grown for the purpose; the 
looser and more leafy tuft or head of barbe may be pro- 
duced from ordinary chicory roots. The culture and han- 
dling of the two products are essentially the same. Wit- 
loof is a delicate slightly bitter salad, much prized in 
winter and spring, and imported into this country from 
Europe, sometimes under the name " French endive.^' Its 
culture is simple, however. 

Seed for witloof is sown in spring in rows about 18 
inches and the young plants thinned to 6 inches. The 
plants should grow continuously throughout the season; 
and at the approach of cold weather the roots are lifted, the 
tops cut 2 inches above the crown, and the roots stored in 
a cellar, so that they will remain dormant till needed. When 
the forcing is begun, the roots are trimmed on the bottom 
so that they are 8 or 9 inches long; the roots are set up- 
right in sand or soil in boxes or beds, being very close 
together; about 8 inches of clean sand are placed over the 
crowns; the tops soon begin to push through if a tempera- 
ture of 55° to 60° is maintained and sufficient moisture 
is provided; in two weeks the cone of leaves should be 
ready for the table. A good head or cone is about 6 inches 
long (Fig. 47). 

The Endive and Chicory Plants 
Cichorium. Compositce. Annual, biennial and perennial 



Endive and Chicory 



115 



herbs, of probably a lialf dozen species, in Europe and Africa, 
of which two are cultivated. 

C. Endivia, Linn. Sp. PL 813. Endive. Annual, perhaps 
also biennial, usually with a strong taproot, forming a cluster 
or rosette of brittle edible foliage, juice milky ; stem 2 to 3 
ft. tall, very leafy, loosely long-hairy (particularly on line 
beneath the leaves), branching, the branches soft and often 
more or less f asciated : leaves oblong, obovate-oblong or ovate- 
oblong in outline, narrowed to the base to a short winged 
petiole, 8 to 12 in. long and 3 to 5 in. broad, sometimes sparsely 
hairy on the midrib beneath, in cultivated forms deeply sinuate 
many-lobed and crisped, the lobes sometimes 1 in, broad and 
in other forms multifld and almost thread-like; stem leaves 
similar but successively smaller, alternate, passing into lanceo- 
late broad-based clasping bracts : flower-heads axillary and 
others terminating short or long branches, about 12- to 16- 
flowered, florets perfect and purple-rayed; receptacle naked; 
involucre short-cylindric, scales in about two rows of which 
the inner are lanceolate-subacute and erect and hyaline-mar- 
gined and the outer ones leafy and broad, spreading or recurved 
and ciliate-margined, the head often subtended by two short- 
spreading obtuse ciliate bracts ; ovary obconic, bearing at its 
top a rim of pappus-scales like a scalloped edging inside which 
arises the hairy corolla-tube; style-branches purple, long and 
curving backward or coiled: achene ("seed") oblong but 
enlarging toward the top, 3 to 4 mm. (about % in.) long, 
angled and ribbed, glabrous, carrying the scalloped pappus- 
crown which may be broken or w^anting in the commercial 
seed and which is one-sixth to one-eighth the total length of 
the achene and crown, the achene weighing 1% to 2 mg. and 
retaining its vitality 8 to 10 years. — Probably Asian but by 
some botanists supposed to be a culture-form of C. pumilum, 
Jacq. (C. divaricatum, Schousb.) of the Mediterranean region 
and by others of C. Intijhns, the chicory. 

C. Intybus, Linn. Sp. PI. 813. Chicory. Perennial with 
hard long taproot w^hich is much thickened in some of the 
cultivated races, taller, stiffer and more virgate than C. En- 



116 



Salad Crops 



divia, the stem and branches mucli less leafy, stem loosely 
hairy below but glabrous or nearly so toward the top, the 
hard elongated branches practically leafless : leaves various, the 
lower ones mostly oblong-oblanceolate, 6 to 15 in. long and 2 
to 3 in. broad, obtuse or very short-acute, narrowed to a 
clasping bracts : flower-head sessile in clusters and also ter- 
above and beneath, the margins nearly or quite entire to 
sinuate-dentate or runcinate or jagged, the upper leaves of 
similar character but smaller and passing into ovate-lanceolate 
clasping bracts : flower-head sessile in clusters and also ter- 
minal on peduncles, much like those of C. Endivia but larger 
( % to 2 in. across in full bloom ) , blue and sometimes pink 
or white, the involucre scales narrower and the outer ones 
much less foliaceous, the achenes more ribbed and with a 
shorter pappus-border. — Europe, and now extensively run wild,, 
making one of the finest displays of blue in the forenoon 
when the blossoms are open ; the flowers do not expand a sec- 
ond time. Some of the frizzled cultivated forms known as 
chicories may belong more closely to C. Endivia. 

The Latin name of chicory is intulms (or intyhus) ; the 
word endivia is probably derived from it. Endive and chicory 
are both of relatively recent domestication. 

CRESS 

Cresses are grown for their piquant leaves, which are 
nsed in salads and garnishings. Two kinds are in com- 
mon cultivation, members of the Cruciferas or Mustard 
Family. They may be considered separately, as they differ 
in cultivation. Other plants known as cress need not be 
discussed here, as they are little grown for food in I^orth 
America. 

Garden Cress 

The garden cress is a short-season annual, a cool-weather 
plant, grown for its root leaves. Usually the leaves are 



Common Cress 



117 



not desired in summer. Seeds may be sown as soon as 
the ground is fit in spring, for the plant is hardy or 
half-hardy ; they germinate very 
rapidly. A rather cool and rich 
soil is to be chosen, for the value 
of the foliage will depend, to 
a large extent, on the vigor of 
its growth. Late in the season 
and in warm weather the plant 
runs quickly to seed. For au- 
tumn use, the seeds may be 
sown late in summer and in 
early fall. It is easily grown 
in pots or boxes in the house 
in winter. Cress is sown in 
rows a foot apart, and thinned 
as it grows. 

Leaves fit for use may be had in six to eight weeks from 
the sowing of the seed, under ordinary conditions. If 
leaves are removed carefully, the plant continues to bear. 




St). Young growth of garden cress 
(X %). 





51. Seeds of garden cress 
(X 6). 



52. Seedlings of cress (X %)• 



Sowings should be frequent, to provide succession. There 
are a number of varieties, some of them with beautifully 
curled foliage. The garden cress is less popular in 



a 



118 



Salad Crops 



America than abroad. Figs. 50 to 52 show the garden 
cress. 

Garden cress is Lepidium sativum, Linn. Sp. PI. 644. Crucl- 
Jerce. Being a lepidium, it is therefore closely related to the 
wild peppergrass of j ards and waste places. Plant annual, 
making a tuft or rosette of leaves used in salad, soon sending 
up a smooth slightly glaucous erect branching stem 1 to 2 ft. 
high : radical and lower stem leaves oval or oblong in outline, 
long-petioled, twice pinnatifid into narrow lobed divisions, some- 
times crisped or curled ; upper leaves once pinnate or ternate, 
the uppermost often simple, long-linear and entire: flowers 
small, white, in terminal racemes : pod a flattened broadly oval 
stalked silicle notched at the top, about 6 mm, long, with 
one seed hanging from the top in each of the 2 cells: seed, 
rather large (2 mm. or about iV in. long), smooth, brown, with 
a straightish front and curved back, weighing about 2 mg. and 
holding its vitality about 5 years. — Native in Europe, and 
sometimes escaped in this country. 

The winter and spring cress, of the cruciferous genus Bar- 
barea, is rarely grown. Upland cress grown by the writer 
many years ago, from American commercial seed, was Bar- 
barea ; recently he has planted seed under this name, and it 
is Lepidium sativum. The spring cress of cultivation is prob- 
ably mostly Barharca verna, Aschers. {B. prcBCOX, R. Br.). It 
is usually biennial, the young plants becoming established from 
seeds dropped in summer, and sending up the flower-stalks 
early the following spring. In cultivation, it is treated as 
an annual or as a winter perennial. The seeds may be sown 
late in the season and the young plants are ready for use the 
next spring ; or seeds may be sown in earliest spring. The 
plant is perfectly hardy, 

Watei'-cj'ess 

Water-cress is a prostrate perennial, rooting at the 
joints, with small roundish leaves, thriving in very moist 
places and in running water. ■ It is readily propagated by 



Water-cress 



119 



seeds, which may be scattered along cool brooks, and by 
bits of the stems planted in the earth. In order that it 
may reach its best development, the water should be pure, 
cool, and clean. When once established in a permanent 
place, it will persist indefinitely, taking care of itself. 
AVhen a natural brook is not to be had, it may be grown 
in a moist shady place in the garden where it may be 
watered frequently. Sometimes it is grown in the pit of 
an abandoned hotbed, into which water may be run with 
a hose. If the ground is kept moist, or even wet, the 
plant will thrive and it will not be necessary to have it 
covered with water. The plant is best grown, however, by 
being colonized along brooksides and about springs. If 
the colonies are picked or harvested very closely, the plants 
will suffer. 

Watek-cress sowbug (MancaseUus hrachyurus) . — A gray- 
ish aquatic species of sowbug more or less shrimp-like in form 
that attacks the submerged portions of the plants, cutting the 
roots and stems. Control: There is no practicable method of 
controlling sowbugs in natural streams and ponds. Some groovers, 
however, have been able to overcome the difficulty by growing 
the plants in broad shallow beds sloping towards the center, 
where a trough ten inches square lined with boards extends 
the whole length of the bed. When the sowbugs become 
abundant, the water is shut off for twelve to twenty-four 
hours, allowing the beds to drain. Water is retained in the 
trough, in which the sowbugs soon accumulate in great num- 
bers. They may be destroyed by the addition of a liberal 
quantity of copper sulfate solution. Less injury will result 
if water is drained off soon after the cress has oeen gathered. 

For our purpose we may use for water-cress the botanical 
name Roripa Nasturtium-oquaticnm, Hayek. (Sisumhrium Nas- 
turtium-aquaticum, Linn.). Thereby we come upon the most 



120 



Salad Crops 



complex situation in nomenclature in any of the common gar- 
den vegetables. It is well to state the case briefly in outline, 
that the student may comprehend the nature of these tangles. 
The question is involved with the botany of the plant and also 
with the application of current rules of nomenclature. The 
primary problem is whether the water-cress should be asso- 
ciated with other plants in a more or less composite genus, 
or whether it should be separated wholly or largely by itself. 
In some respects it is unlike the plants with which it has been 
associated, by Linnaeus himself in Sisymbrium and by subse- 
quent authors in Nasturtium, Radicula and Roripa. If it is 
separated, the question of the generic name to be adopted is 
not simple. In the necessary dismemberment of the Liun.Tan 
genus Sisymbrium, it would seem that the water-cress should 
go into another genus inasmuch as it apparently does not 
typify the genus Sisymbrium as Linnreus intended it. The 
plant happens to be the first species described by Linnseus 
under Sisymbrium, however, and for this reason certain 
authors hold it in that genus as Linnaeus has it, /S. Xastur- 
tium-aquaticum. In this disposition, Sisymbrium may be re- 
garded as a monotypic genus, the water-cress being the only 
species. This arbitrary resolution of the case is not commonly 
followed. If another genus is desired for it, recourse may be 
had to Cardaminum of Moeuch, 1794, or to Baeumerta, Giertner, 
Meyer & Scherbius, 1800, both names being proposed exclu- 
sively for the w^ater-cress. Radicula of Hill, 1756, Roripa of 
Scopoli, 1730, and Nasturtium of Robert Brown, 1812, are pro- 
posed for multiple segregates from Sisymbrium and in them the 
water-cress has found lodgement. The plant is commonly 
known in the trade as Nasturtium officinale, but this name 
cannot hold under any interpretation, as in present practice 
the Linnsean specific name, Nasturtium-aqiiaticum, must be 
used with the generic name. The report of the International 
Botanical Congress of Brussels, 1910, recommends the retention 
of Nasturtium for the water-cress, rather than the older 
generic names Cardaminum and Baeumerta, on the assump- 
tion that the changes would be fewer or at least that the 



Water-cress. Corn-salad 



121 



situation would be better understood ; but under Nasturtium 
the proper combination of names apparently has not been 
made, anj^ more than it has under Cardaminum ; in either case, 
therefore, a new name must result if the plant is removed 
singly from Sisymbrium. If the plant is to be associated with 
others in a genus, the clearest destination seems to be in 
Roripa (for reasons not necessary here to explain), and the 
plant is so disposed of in this book. The synonymy may be 
displayed as follows: Roripa Nasturtium-aquaticum, Hayek, 
Sched. Fl. Stir. Exsicc, 3.14 lief. (Dec, 1905) 22. Sisymhrmm 
Nasturtium-aquaticum, Linn. Sp. PI. 657. Cardaminum Nastur- 
tium, Moench, Meth. 262. 1794. Baeumerta Nasturtium, 
Gsertn. Mey. & Scherb. Fl. Wett. ii, 467. ISOO. Nasturtium 
officinale, R. Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2, iv, 110. 1S12. Nas- 
turtium aquaticum, Wahl. Svensk. Bot. t. 624. 1823-5. Carda- 
mine Nasturtium, O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. i, 22. 1891. Roripa 
Nasturtium, Beck. Fl. N. GEst. ii, 463. 1892. Radicula Nastur- 
tium-aquaticum, Britt. & Rendle, Brit. Seed PL, 3. 1907. Baeu- 
merta Nasturtium-aquaticum, Hayek, Fl, Steierm, i, 498. 1909. 
Perennial, creeping or floating, smooth, emitting long white 
roots at the modes : leaves odd-pinnately compound, of 1 to 4 
lateral pairs ; terminal lobe oblong to orbiculate, entire, undu- 
late or obscurely toothed ; lateral leaflets usually much smaller : 
flowers white, in very short terminal racemes that elongate 
in fruit, small : fruit a curved linear long-pedicelled pod : seeds 
small (about 1 mm. across), brown, oblong-orbicular, tubercu- 
late, weighing less than 1 mg., and holding vitality about 5 
years. — Europe; widely naturalized in this country in ditches, 
rills and pools. 

CORN-SALAD 

Corn-salad or fetticus is used both as salad or potherb, 
chiefly the former, the thick bunch or rosette of root leaves 
being employed for the purpose. It is a hardy cool-season 
plant, of easy culture except in hot weather. 

It may be grown as a mid-spring crop from seed sown 
the same season; as a fall crop from seeds sown in late 



Salad Crops 



summer or early autumn; as a very early spring crop from 
plants allowed to stand over winter. 

For the mid-spring crop, corn-salad should be sown 
as soon as the land can be fitted. It quickly runs to seed 
in hot and dry weather. Plants should stand about 6 inches 
apart in the row. An ounce of seed should yield 2,000 
to 3,000 plants. The plant matures in six to eight weeks, 
giving a bunch of leaves somewhat like small-leaved 
spinach. 

For the late or main supply the seeds may be sown, at 
the Xorth, in the latter part of August or early part of 
September. It will provide edible herbage late in the 
season, and in a mild climate or open winter it will survive 
and yield acceptable crop in early spring ; or it may be 
protected over winter by leaves or straw, much as 
spinach is handled; it may be grown and carried over in 
frames. 

Coru-salad is the cultivated form of Valerianella Locusta, 
Betcke. Aiiim. Bor. Valer. 10. 1S26. Yalerianaccrr. It is 
commonly known in liorticultural literature as T. oUtoria. 
Poll. Hi>t. ri. Palat. i. 30. 1776. (Valeriana Locusta var. 
ojitoria. Linn. Sp. PL 33.) It is a small glabrous annual, native 
in Europe, where it grows among the corn (grain), whence 
the name. " corn-salad"' : it Is run wild to some extent in 
North America : plant making a tuft or mat of oblanceolate 
or ohlong obtuse root leaves 2 to 3 in. long, which are entiie 
or toothed : stem leaves similar, successively smaller, opposite, 
sessile, some of them narrowed to the base: stem 1 ft. or 
less high, at length much branched, bearing very small light 
blue 5-lobed flowers in dense heads terminal on forking 
branches: fruit ("•seed") nearly orbicular but with a short 
2-pointed beak, somewhat flattened sidewise, in. long, light 
brown, furrowed up the middle, where 1 lenticular seed is 

« 



Corri-salad. Parsley 



123 



borne, the fruit weigliing lo to 1 mg. ; vitality about 5 
years. Figs. 53 and 54 sbow the seeds (properly fruits) and 
seedlings. 

PARSLEY 

In this country, parsley is the most popular of the gar- 
nishing herbs. The leaves are nsed also for salads and 
for flavoring. The plant is biennial, but the foliage is 
gathered the first year, and the 
plants are then destroyed unless 
seed is wanted. 

The seed is slow to germinate, 
and it is best to sow in a 
seed-bed unless the o-round is 




Seeds (fruits) of corn- 
salad (X T). 



in excellent tilth 



and 



15 



moist to the top. Some growers soak the seeds before 
sowing, in tepid water. Thin or transplant to 8 to 12 
inches apart each way. Make successive sowings. It 
usually requires three months from sowing to bring good 
foliage for gathering. The strongest established plants 
may be covered with sash, and leaves may then be gath- 
ered all winter. The plants will stand considerable frost. 
It is a good plan to 
lift a few roots in late 
fall and set them in 
pots or boxes in the 
house: from these a 
winter supply may be 

secured Seedlmgs of corn salad or fetticus 

_ ' ^ ^ (X about 2/3). 

-b or market the 
leaves are tied in small attractive bunches. The various 
forms of curled parsley are most popular, although the 




124 



Salad Crops 



plain-leaved is as good. Parsley fruits and seedlings are 




55. Seeds (fruits) of ' 

parsley (X 4). 56. Parsley seedlings (X %).. 



Parsley is one of the Umbellifer«, Petroselinum hortense, 
Hoffm. Geu. Umb. 163. 1814. known also as Apium Petrose- 
linum. Linn. Sp. PI. 264. and Petroselinum sativum, Hoffm. 
Gen. Umb. 177. It is native in the Mediterranean region, 
but is sometimes escaped in tliis country : glabrous biennial 
or short-lived perennial, making many radical leaves which 
are prized in cookery and for garnishing : stem 18 to 30 in. 
high, much branched : leaves teruately decompound, the ulti- 
mate leaflets wedge-ovate. deei)]y cut and petioled : flowers 
small, greenish yellow, in compound umbels: fruit ("seed'') 
one of the two separated carpels, oblong-convex with one style 
curving backward from the top like a little hook (often broken 
in commercial seeds), ribbed on each edge. 3-ribbed on the 
back, about % in. long and weighing 1 to 2 mg. ; vitality 3 
years. Yar. crispum {P. sativu)n var. crispum, DC, Prodr. iv, 
102. 1830) has leaves cut. curled and crisped. In the Moss- 
curled parsley the leaves are very finely divided and somewhat 
bunched. Yar. radicosum (P. sativum var. radicosum, Alef. 
Landw. Fl. 1.53. 1866) is the turnip-rooted parsley, grown for the 
thick parsnip-like tapering root. 

SALAD CHERYIL 
The salad chervil is an annual plant much like parsley, 
popular in Europe, but little known in this country. Tt 
is used for garnishing and seasoning, for which the curled- 
leafed variety is the most prized (Figs. 57 and 58). 



Chervil 



125 



The 

in six 
in hot 



plant is of easy cnltnre, giving a cutting of leaves 
to eight weeks from the seed. It does not thrive 
dry summers, and therefore should be grown as a 
spring or fall crop, unless the par- 
ticular location is cool, as in partial 
shade or with a northward exposure. 
It is hardy, and where winters are not 
severe can be carried over the cold 
season by light coldframes or even by 
protection of brush. The plant reaches 




57. The long fruits 
("seeds") of salad 
chervil (X 5). 




58. The slender seedlings of chervil (X 2/3). 



a height of nearly two feet when mature, but the young 
foliage is most desired. The plants should stand 8 to 12 
inches apart. For turnip-rooted chervil, which is another 
plant, see Chapter YII. 

Salad chervil isj Anthriscus Cerefoiium, Hoffm.. Gen. Umb. 
41. 1S14. UmheUifercc. It is known in literature also as 
Scandix Cerefoiium, Linn. Sp, PI. 257; CliceroplijiUum sativum, 
Lam. Encyl. i. 684. 1783; Cerefoiium, Cerefoiium, Britton, 
111. Fl. eel. 2. ii, 629. 1913. It is a fine-leaved soft annual 
of quick growth, native in Europe and sometimes run wild 
in North America : stem erect, branching. 1 to 2 ft., glabrous : 
radical and main stem leaves ternately decompound, the ulti- 
mate leaflets small {V-2 to % in. long), ovate to orbicular 
and deeply cut : flowers white, minute, in compound umbels : 
fruit ("seed" of commerce) representing 1 of the 2 carpels 



126 



Salad Crops 



broken apart, linear, with the very slender often whitish 
beak about % in. long (beak sometimes broken off in commer- 
cial samples), black, smooth, grooved on inner face, weighing 
about 1 to 1% mg. ; vitality 1 to 3 years. (The word Cere- 
folium is an old substantive signifying "pleasant leaf.") 

CELERY 

Cool, very rich and moist land well supplied with vege- 
table matter, deep preparation, the best surface tillage and 
the most careful attention to all care of the plant, are req- 
uisites of good celery culture. It is always a seed-bed 
crop. It may be treated as a succession- or companion-crop, 
although it mostly is the sole occupant of tlie land in any 
season. It is hardy, ivithstanding light frost if properly 
handled. The leaf-gtalks, which are the edible parts, are 
blanched; allowance must be made for the blanching oper- 
ation by luide spacing between the rows. The crop must 
be stored from freezing if kept in winter. 

Celery is planted 6 to 12 inches apart in the row. The rows 
vary from 2 to even 6 feet. Sometimes the rows are double, 
the two being 6 in. apart. In the self-blanching system, the 
plants are set 6 to 8 or 10 inches each way ; at 7 x 8 in., about 
112,000 plants are required to the full acre. There is usually 
much loss in seeds and young plants, and it is therefore advis- 
able to sow the seed very thick. One ounce of seed to 200 feet 
of row in the seed-bed is a liberal allowance. Some gardeners 
estimate 2,000 good plants from each ounce of seed, but this 
allows for an unusual amount of loss. An ounce should give 
5,000 to 10,000 good plants, after allowing for several times 
that amount in loss. One pound of celery seed should give 
enough strong plants to set four to five acres. In single-row 
planting 6 in, apart, and the rows 5 ft., as in earth-banking, 
more than 17,000 plants stand on a full acre. The yield from 



Celery 



127 



an acre should be 400 to 600 dozen Lunches of 3 or more stalks 
each, if the distance of planting is 3 ft. by G in. 

Late blight of celery (Septoria petroselmi) . — Irregular 
brownish spots containing small black fruiting bodies are pro- 
duced on leaves and leaf-stalks. Frequently the spots unite, 
causing the entire leaf to become dry and papery. Bacteeial 
BLIGHT. — Lesions differ from those of late blight in that the 
spots are smaller, more regular in outline, darker brown in 
color and have no black fruiting bodies scattered over them. 
Cercospora blight {Cercospora apii). — Characteristic ashen 
gray spots develop. Later the entire leaf may become some- 
what yellowed and ashen gray and velvety. Control: All of 
the above blights are controlled by thorough spraying with 
bordeaux mixture 5-5-50. If the disease is present in the 
seed-bed one or more applications there is advisable. Field 
spraying with two nozzles to the row, the two being placed 
some distance apart and at such an angle that the two sprays 
overlap at the top of the row and thoroughly cover the sides, 
is advisable. Applications should begin about three weeks 
after transplanting and should continue at about weekly inter- 
vals, depending somewhat on weather conditions, till blanch- 
ing time. 

Storage rot (Sclerotinia lihertiana) . — Frequently plants of 
celery in storage become water-soaked in appearance, and on 
this softened tissue white felts of mycelium containing hard 
black fungous bodies develop. Control: The introduction of 
wounded plants or those showing beginning of decay, is to 
be avoided. The maintenance of proper storage conditions is 
imperative. 

Carrot rust-fly (PsiJa rosce) . — A slender straw-colored 
maggot, in. long when mature, that eats off and destroys 
the fibrous roots of young celery plants. A second brood 
appears in late summer and bores in the taproot. No prac- 
ticable method of control is known. 

Black swallow-tail butterfly (Papilio polyxenes) . — A 
beautiful green caterpillar about 2 in. long, each segment with 



128 



Salad Crops 



a black band near the front margin enclosing six yellow 
spots ; feeds on the leaves of celery and is most destructive 
to young plants. Control: Hand-picking is the most depend- 
able remedy. 

Celery looper (Atifographa falcigera). — A looping cater- 
pillar about 114 in. long, pale translucent green with a dark 
median line bordered on each side with three light lines. It 
sometimes feeds on the leaves of celery. Control: Hand-pick- 
ing is the only available measure, as arsenicals cannot be used 
on celery. 

Tarnished plant-bug {Lygus pratcn-'^-is) . — A small incon- 
spicuous brownish bug, about Vi in. long. The adults often 
attack celery plants that are blanching, puncture the tender 
stalks, producing large brown wilted spots and a blackening 
of the tissues at the joints. No satisfactory method of con- 
trol is known. 

The negro bug (Thyreocoris pulicarhis). — A short, broad, 
shining black strongly convex stink-bug about tV in. long, 
that often attacks celery, puncturing the stalks and stunting 
or killing them. The injury to celery is mostly done by 
the adults which have bred on various weeds such as beg'gar- 
ticks, tick-seed, etc. Control: Destroy all weeds in the vicinity 
of celery on which the bugs may breed. Spraying is not 
effective since many of the bugs burrow in the soil where they 
cannot be reached. 

Parsnip webworm (Depresaria heracliana). — See under 
Parsnip. 

Spinach aphis (Mijziis persicw). — See under Spinach. 

Celery is practically a universal table supply in North 
America, prized for its crisp aromatic leaf-stalks, as well 
as for the decorative character of the finer parts of the 
foliage. The seed is sometimes nsed in cookery for flav- 
oring, particularly in the preparation of soups. The whit- 
ened leaf-stalks are usually eaten raw, but they are also 
cooked in different ways. 



Celery 



129 



Celery is commonly grown on bottom lands because it 
then receives a sufficient and constant supply of moisture. 
Usually, also, such lands are very fertile. Celery of excel- 
lent quality can be grown on uplands; but ordinarily more 
care is required in securing deep tillage and in conserving 
moisture, and more expense is entailed in adding fertilizers. 
Successful commercial celery growing on high lands is 
usually possible only when much stable manure is added 
and Avhen irrigation is practiced; the overhead method of 
irrigating is well adapted to the crop. Under those con- 
ditions, however, the celery grown on high lands may be 
fully as good as that raised in reclaimed marshes. Level 
black-soil marsh or bottom lands, in which the water- 
table does not fall below 2 or 3 feet in summer, are usually 
chosen for commercial celery growing. In all celery grow- 
ing, every effort must be made to conserve the moisture. 
Furrow irrigation may be emplo3Td where rainfall is 
deficient. 

For home use celery can be grown in any well- 
tilled and rich garden soil. Home gardeners are often 
specially successful with it in city and village lots. Under 
such circumstances, particular attention can be given to 
trenching or other deep preparation of the land and to 
consistent care from first to last. Well-rotted stable 
manure may be used freely. 

Field management. 

Celery is grown as a short-season crop; that is, it may 
not occupy the land the whole growing season. The main 
crop is sometimes planted as a succession, early cabbages 
or other spring crops having been grown on the land. In 



130 



Salad Crops 



the case of lowland fields, however, the celery crop is com- 
monly the only one grown, since the land is usually too 
wet in the spring to allow of any early planting. In some 
celery-growing regions, two or three crops of celery are 
raised on the land at the same time, the later or main 
crop being planted between the rows of the early crop. 
The main or late crop, which is used for winter consump- 
tion, may be planted in the field as late as the middle or 
last of July in the iiorthern States. The early crop may 
be set in the field as soon as the weather is settled in 
spring, but there is relatively small demand for very early 
celery. The young plants should not be subjected to hard 
frosts. 

Commercial fertilizers are used to supplement liberal 
supplies of stable manure. When the manure cannot be 
obtained, such fertilizers may be used to supplement the 
humus supplied by good rotation or change of land. Com- 
pounds rich in nitrogen are usually advised. In fact, 
nitrate of soda alone is used, in several applications, as 
much as 150 or 200 pounds each time. The rich bottom 
lands, however, may not require such supplements. 

" Celery luxuriates in a soil rich in vegetable matter," 
writes Yoorhees (Fertilizers, rev. ed. 295). "A heavy 
application of the basic mixture (page 383) — a ton to the 
acre, used at time of setting the plants — may be followed 
with advantage by frequent and reasonably heavy top- 
dressings of nitrate of soda, 100 pounds to the acre or 
more, and well worked into the soil." 

Ordinarily, frequent level tillage is practiced until the 
plants are ready for the hilling or other blanching process. 
Some growers, however, prefer to mulch the land heavily 



Celery 



131 




Celery "seeds' 
(X 10). 



enQUgh to retain moisture and keep down weeds. Stable 
manure a few inches deep is one of tlie best covers, but 
straw and other materials are also employed. The manure 
should be kept from direct contact with the 
plants. 

Celery is always a transplanted crop. The 
seeds are small (Fig. 59) and slow to germi- 
nate, and the seedlings are delicate (Fig. 
60). It is only in a well-prepared seed-bed 
that satisfactory results can be expected. 
This seed-bed should have perfect surface 
tilth and retain moisture to the top. Prefer- 
ably, it should be protected from hot and dry winds. Some 
persons prefer to have the bed partially shaded; but if 
the shading is too dense, the plants are likely to be soft 
and tender when taken to the field, and they are killed 
by sun-scald. It is advisable, whenever possible, to have 
the seed-bed in such place that it can be watered every 
evening if necessary; but care must be exercised that the 
watering is not so heavy 
that it packs and puddles 
the earth. Sometimes the 
bed is covered with boards, 
brush or straw, to main- 
tain the moisture until 
germination has taken 
place. This may be ad- 
visable, but if the covering 
is left on too long, the plants make a very weak and spin- 
dling growth and are worthless. If covering is used, it 
is well to remove it gradually as the plants germinate. 




Celery seedlings (X 2/3). 



132 



Salad Crops 



The perfect seed-bed, however, is one that does not need a 
cover, but which holds the moisture of itself. 

The early crop is commonly started under glass at the 
N'orth, transplanted to the open in six weeks to two 
months. Plants for late crop are started in seed-bed in 
the open. 

To secure stocky plants, they should be transplanted 
once or twice in the seed-bed, or they may be thinned 
until they finally stand at 2 or 3 inches apart. The labor 
of transplanting is so great that growers of large areas 
prefer to secure stocky plants by the thinning process and 
then by shearing off the remaining plants when they be- 
come too tall. The plants may be cut back a third their 
growth by shears or sickle, or on large beds with a scythe 
or mowing-machine. Transplanting is preferable when- 
ever it can be managed. 

The plants should be 4 or 5 inches high and stocky and 
dark green when they are planted in the field. Plants are 
usually set 6 to 12 inches in the rows, and the distance 
between the rows varies with the price of land and par- 
ticularly with the method of blanching. 

Only well-bred seed should be sown. The plant tends 
to run wild, but the seed from this depreciated stock should 
not be employed for the growing of a crop. 

Blanc] ting. 

Celery should be crisp, tender and well blanched to be 
used as salad. The blanching is accomplished by exclud- 
ing the light. There are four common methods of blanch- 
ing celery in vogue at present: by the use of boards or 
paper: banking up with earth; close planting: blanching 



Celery 



133 



in pits or storage. It may be said that green unblanched 
celery may be used for cooking, and in some countries the 
plant is not blanched to the extent to which it is known in 
North America. 

Blanching hy means of hoards is employed for the early 
or summer celery, because protection from frost must be 
supplied to the celery that remains in the field after the 
first of October, and the boards usually do not afford suf- 
ficient protection; and the early self -blanching varieties 
are likely to decay or at least not to stand so long if banked 
with earth. Boards one foot wide and one inch thick and 
about 12 or 14 feet long are used. If the boards are 
much longer than this, they are awkward to handle. 
These boards are set on edge close against the crown of 
the plant, one on either side of the row, and the tops are 
tipped together until they are only two or three inches 
apart or until they rest against the plants. The boards 
are held in this position by cleats nailed across the top, 
or by wire hooks. The first " boarding is made when the 
celery is only tall enough to show a few of its leaves above 
the boards. The plants shoot up for light, making slender 
soft stalks. The foliage fills the space between the boards 
and excludes the light from above. In ten to twenty days 
in warm " growing " wecther, the celery may be blanched 
by this method. In any means of blanching in summer 
one must see that the plants do not rot at the heart, as 
they are likely to do if they are too wet at the core. The 
board method of blanching celery is one of the most eco- 
nomical and is now extensively used in the large celery 
fields. G-rowers usually find that it pays to obtain a good 
quality of lumber and to use it year after year. Some 



134 



Salad Crops 



commercial growers think it best to liave the lumber 
dressed on both sides. In the boarding system the rows 
may be ^:iit only far enough apart to allow of good horse 
tillage^, say from 2 to 3 feet. 

Payer is sometimes employed rather than boards. Eolls 
of building paper are sawn across to make strips one foot 
wide. The strip is then unrolled against the row and 
held in place by means of stakes. Good paper well taken 
care of should last for two or three crops. 

A different use of paper is to wrap and tie each plant 
in stiff strong manila or similar stock. Of course this is 
adapted only to small areas. Large tiles kre sometimes 
set on the plants for the same purpose. 

Blanching dy earth usually gives a somewhat better 
quality of celery; but this method is expensive and it can- 
not be employed so well in midsummer, since the plants 
are more likely to rot at the heart. Usually two or three 
" handlings " or bankings are given. When the plants 



whilst earth is shoveled against the plant so as to cover it 
two-thirds or more of its height. In ten days or two weeks 
the " handling " is repeated. In late years the banking of 
celery, particularly in large areas, is performed by 




61. Celery plo-w. 



have spread so 
much as to make a 
crown or head a 
foot or eighteen 
inches across, the 
celery is "handled^' 
by gathering the 
leaves in the hand 
and holding them 



Celery 



135 



means of celery plows^ implements with very high mold- 
boards that throw a great quantity of earth against the 
plant (Fig. 61). If celery is to be blanched by the bank- 
ing process, the rows are rarely less than 3% feet apart, 
and if the tall-growing varieties are used, the rows are 
often put at 5 or even 6 feet. Double rows, 6 inches apart 
and the plants about 6 inches in the row, lend themselves 
well to earth banking, the space between these pairs of rows 
being 4 to 6 feet. In this case, of course, about twice the 
number of plants is required as in the single-row planting. 
The late or green (not self -blanching) varieties are grown 
for earth-banking. 

Blanching ty means of close planting was formerly 
known as the " new celery culture.^^ This consists in grow- 
ing the plants so close that the light is excluded and the 
plants blanch themselves. Plants are usually grown as 
close as 6 to 10 inches either way. It will be seen that 
this system can be used only when the soil is very rich 
and when there is abundant supply of moisture. When- 
ever the water-table is close to the surface or when one can 
practice irrigation, it may be considered. It is usually 
successful in small home gardens where one can use a hose. 
The self -blanching varieties are usually grown in the close- 
planting method. 

Blanching in storage is the usual practice with late 
winter celery. If it is thoroughly blanched before putting 
in storage, it will not keep well. It is usually advisable, 
however, to " handle the crop at least once in the field in 
order to induce a straight upright growth and to begin 
the blanching process. Thereafter the plants are set in 
pits or sheds so close together that the blanching proceeds. 



136 



Salad Crops 



Marketing ; storing. 

For market, celery is prepared by being thoroughly 
washed and usually scrubbed, so that all earth and sand 
are removed. The outside leaves are removed and usually 
the root is trimmed away, leaving a pointed base to the 
whole cluster, although the shape of the trimmed product 
differs between places. A few plants (3 to 8) are tied 
together to form attractive bunches. These plants are then 
shipped in crates or boxes, the style of box and the num- 
ber to be packed in each depending largely on the market 
in which one sells. For high-class local markets the 
product is sometimes handled in attractive paper-lined 
baskets and hampers (Fig. 237). In all careful market- 
ing the celery should be closely graded. The plant lends 
itself to such assortment. 

The celery may be lifted from the field by means of a 
spade or shovel. In large plantations the plants are 
plowed out or removed by horse or power implements made 
for the purpose. 

There are two or three methods of storing celery. Stor- 
ing in outside cellars or pits is sometimes practiced. 
The early winter and midwinter celery, however, is usually 
stored in special celery houses, which are permanent sheds 
with windows at intervals along the roof, to supply light 
enough for the workmen. Wooden chimneys are pro- 
vided to afford ventilation. These houses are sometimes 
supplied with heat by means of stoves, so that the tem- 
perature does not fall much, if any, below the freezing 
point. In beds in these houses the celery plants are set 
close together and the blanching proceeds during storage. 
Any celery house must be kept cool and moist. To avoid 



Celery 



137 



rot, only healthy sound plants should be stored^ and the 
handling should be so thoughtful that the plants are not 
broken or bruised. The plants are often stored and 
blanched by removing them to deep spent hotbeds, which 
are well covered in 
winter. 

In the home 
garden celery is 
sometimes stored 
in trenches in 
the open, after 
the method sug- 
gested in Fig. 63 
(adapted from E. 
W. De Baun, N". J. 
Extension Bulle- 
tin, 1917). A roof 
is placed lengtli- 
wise the line of 
plants, and it may 
be covered with 
straw or other 
material as the 
winter closes in. 

Care must be taken not to cover the tops too soon or 
too tight, as the plants quickly spoil if kept warm and 
close. This method is successful only on well-drained 
land. 

The old method of celery culture grew the crop in a 
trench; in such case the blanching largely took care of 
itself and the covering of the row for winter was an opera- 




Home storing of celery. 



138 



Salad Crops 



tion of little labor. This method is still good for the 
skilful home gardener. 

Varieties. 

The varieties of celery may be ranged in the " self- 
blanching " and " green " classes. There are no sharp 
lines of demarcation between the two. The former are 
simply easy-blanching types developed largely by selec- 
tion. Most of the celery is now of this kind. It is well 
adapted to blanching by means of boards. White Plume 
is an old favorite, but Golden Self-Blanching is now more 
popular. The green kinds, as Boston Market and Pascal, 
are usually slow blanchers, requiring banking or blanch- 
ing in storage, and are of the class of good keepers. 

The Celery Plant 

Apium. Umhellifcrrr. About 20 species, as the genus is 
usually accepted, of annual, biennial and perennial herbs 
widely distributed over the globe. 

A. graveolens, Linn., var. dulce, DC. Prodr. iv, 101. 1830. 
(A. didce, Mill. Gard. Diet. No. 5. 1768. A. Celet% Gsertn. 
Fruct. i, t. 22, 1788.) Celeky. Strong-smelling glabrous 
biennial (perhaps sometimes perennial) : root leaves many 
and well developed, the petioles and rachises usually expanded : 
stems erect and branching, 2 to 3 ft. tall, many-grooved, with 
conspicuous joints : radical leaves pinnate, ovate to oblong in 
outline, the long petiole with an expanding base; leaflets 
usually two or three pairs and a terminal one, each one 
pinnately ternately compound and stalked, the lateral seg- 
ments often again divided, the segments and divisions cuneate- 
ovate and more or less cut and coarsely toothed : blossoms 
very small, white, in small compound umbels among the 
leaves ; first umbel sessile or nearly so and with subsequent 
long-stemmed umbels from the same joint, the involucels mi- 



Botany of Celery 



139 



niite or wanting : flowers a dozen or more in each umbellet, 
on short rays or peduncles, the 5 broad petals incurved and 
surrounding the 5 anthers; calyx not evident: fruit ("seed" 
of gardeners) one of the two separable carpels, short-oblong 
with curved back and straight front, about 1 mm. (tV in.) 
long, smooth, brown, bearing three prominent ridges and two 
lesser ones on the front edge, weighing % to 1 mg. ; germinating 
longevity 5 to 8 years ; sometimes the two carpels cohere in 
commercial samples, making a " seed " twice the bulk of the 
above weight ; the short recurved styles, one to each carpel, 
are usually broken off in the commercial seed. — A plant of cul- 
tivation, grown from early times but not of ancient domestica- 
tion and not greatly modified from the wild plant. The wild 
original, A. graveolens, Linn. (Celeri graveolens, Britt.) is 
wild in ditches and wet places in Europe and Asia, mostly near 
the sea. (The Latin word graveolens means " strong-smelling," 
whereas dulce is " sweet " or " pleasant," here designating the 
edible cultivated plant.) 

Var. rapaceum, DC. Prodr. iv, 101. 1830 (A. rapaceum, Mill. 
Gard. Diet. No. 5. 1768). Celeriac. A race producing a thick- 
ened turnip-like root (rapum is Latin for "turnip"), the leaf- 
stalks not developed. See page 193 for cultivation. 



• 



CHAPTER YI 
BULB OR ONION CROPS 



Onion 

Leek 

Garlic 



Ciboule or Welsh onion 

Shallot 

Chive 



All the iulh crops are hardy, require a cool season and 
moist rich soil with excellent surface tilth. Usually they 
are not seed-bed crops. They require little room and may 
he planted close. They are used doth as main-season and 
secondary crops. They are propagated both by seeds and 
bulbs. 

These crops are grown chiefly for the ■andergrouncl 
bulbs; but the leaves are often used in stews and season- 
ings. The onion is the only commercially important plant 
in the above group in this country. Garlic, leek and the 
others are known chiefly to citizens of foreign Inrth or to 
those who grow products for the large cities. The onion, 
however, is a major oleraceous crop, being grown under 
large field conditions as well as habitually in the home 
garden. These various vegetables are sometimes known 
as alliaceous plants, from the Latin allium or alium, the 
garlic ; all of them belong to the genus Allium. 

Seeds of these plants are grown by planting over-win- 
tered bulbs in spring. The bulbs should be planted two 
or three inches deep, a few inches apart in the row. Seed- 

(140) 



The Onion 



141 



stalks soon arise, and the seeds are produced in heads on 
top. Some of the kinds, as garlic, seldom produce flowers 
and seeds. 

ONION 

Cool rather moist and level land, soil with the best pos- 
sible surface condition and containing much quickly avail- 
able plant-food, careful attention to the selection of seed, 
the most perfect shallow tillage, are some of the essentials 
in the growing of a good crop of onions. The commercial 
onion supply is grown from seeds, sown where the plants 
are to grow, the early table onions from bulbs of different 
kinds and to some extent from transplanted seedlings. All 
onions withstand considerable frost in- their growing state. 
In the South, onions are grown as a winter crop. 

Being cool-season plants, onions are sown or planted as 
early in the spring as the ground can be made ready. In mild 
climates, seed is sometimes sown in autumn. Onion seed is 
sown ^2 in. to 1 in. deep. Sets, tops, and multipliers may be 
planted at intervals until steady warm spring weather comes. 
One ounce of seed is sown in about 150 feet of drill, and SV2 
to 5 or even 6 pounds to the acre. Rows stand 12 to 16 or 18 
in. apart, and the plants are thinned as they stand, so that the 
mature onions will not crowd. If the onions stand 3 x 14 
inches, nearly 150.000 plants are required to the acre. A good 
crop of onions is 300 to 400 or 500 bushels to the acre, but 
600 to 800 bushels are secured under the best conditions, and 
sometimes as much as 1.000 bushels. 

Onion smut {Urocystis cepulce) . — Smut can be detected 
by the presence on leaves and bulbs of black pustules that 
rupture and expose a powdery black mass of spores. Only 
onions grown from seed are attacked, and these only in the 
very young stage. Affected plants gradually die throughout 
the season. Control: Formaldehyde solution made by adding 



142 



Bulb or Onion Cro'ps 



one pint of commercial formaldehyde to sixteen gallons of 
water should be applied in the furrow with the seed at the 
time of sowing at the rate of two hundred gallons to the 
acre. The application may be made in the open furrow just 
ahead of the coverers by means of a watering device attached 
to the drill. About a five-sixteenth inch flow of liquid from 
the tank should accomplish the full application. A properly 
equipped drill should discharge, when stationary, one gallon 
of the solution every fifty seconds. 

Onion mildew {Peronospora scJiJeideniana) . — The disease 
may be recognized by the furry fungus coating on the outer 
surface of affected leaves. As the fungus develops, the plants 
yellow and finally die. The disease usually becomes evident 
at a few points^ in a field and rapidly spreads under favorable 
conditions of moisture. Partial recovery may occur in a dry 
period by the growth of new leaves, but under favorable con- 
ditions the disease will develop anew. Control: Burning of 
dead tops to prevent the over-wintering of the fungus in them 
and crop rotation to reduce infection from spores over-winter- 
ing in the field, are desirable. Tillage may aid the plants to 
outgrow the fungus. Spraying with bordeaux mixture to 
which has been added resin-fish oil soap is sometimes recom- 
mended ; applications should begin before the disease has 
become established and will perhaps need to be repeated sev- 
eral times. 

Onion theips {Tlirips tadaci). — Minute elongate yellowish 
insects, 1/25 inch long when mature, that attack the leaves, 
especially under the sheath at the base, causing them to turn 
whitish and giving the plants a dirty yellowish appearance. 
The tender leaves at the center become thickened, curled and 
deformed. Badly injured plants fall over on the ground. 
Most injurious in seasons of drought. Control: Spray early 
before the leaves turn down with " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco 
extract, 1 pint in 100 gals, water in which 5 or 6 lbs. soap 
have been dissolved. Use the material liberally and direct the 
spray downward into the base of the leaves. Make three or 
four applications at intervals of four or five days. 



The Onio'i 



143 



Onion maggoi' (Phorhia ceparum). — The parent fly lays lier 
white elongate oval eggs on the plants near the base or in 
cracks and crevices of the soil. The small whitish maggots, 
about % in. long, work their way down the stem usually 
inside the sheath. Young plants are killed ; later the mag- 
gots burrow into the bulbs, causing decay. Control: Many of 
the flies may be poisoned before laying their eggs by using 
the following formula : 

Sodium arsenite % ounce 

Cheap molasses ....... 1 pint 

Water ' . . . . 1 gallon 

The mixture should be placed in tin cans cut down to a depth 
of about 3 in. The tins should be distributed about the field 
and kept filled from the time the onions first show above 
ground till the injury is past. 

The" beginner is likely to be confused by the different 
methods of propagating the onion; yet the various prop- 
agation-forms of the plant represent only one species. 
The case may be presented as follows: 

A. Propagated by means of bulbs : mostly for early or 
spring onions. 

1. From sets, which are small onions of arrested de- 
velopment that resume growth on being planted the 
following spring. i 

2. From top onions, which are bulbels or small bulbs 
produced on the flower-stalk in the place of flowers 
and seeds. 

3. From multipliers, which are bulbs that break up into 
two or more distinct bulbs when planted. 

B. Propagated directly from seeds: main field crop and 
also some of the early table green onions. Crops grown 
from seeds are often called " black seed onions," but 
the name has no significance for all onion seeds are 
black ; the contrast is with the bulb-propagated group. 



144 



Bulb or Onion Crops 



Early Green Onions 
The small early or spring onions, used green or fresli 
and usually sold in bunches, are grown from either bulbs 
or seeds, usually from bulbs. These bulbs, as we have 
learned, are of three kinds : " top onions," or bulbels that 
are produced on the top of the flower-stalk, in the 
place of flowers ; " sets," which are small onions, arrested 
in their growth; potato onions," or "multipliers," 
which are compound bulbs, each component part 
forming a new bulb. The top onions (sometimes 
called "tree onio^ns " and "Egyptian onions") and the 
multipliers are distinct races or types of onions, but sets 
are only the partially grown bulbs of any common onion 
which it is desired to propagate in this way. 

To raise sets, seeds are sown very thickly on a rather 
light and dry piece of ground. As much as 40 to 70 
pounds of seed are sown to the acre. The plants soon crowd, 
and by midsummer the tops begin to die for lack of food, 
moisture and room. The bulbs should not be more than 
one-half or three-fourths inch in diameter. They are cured 
and stored as are ordinary onions. The 
following spring, when planted, they 
resume growth, and in a very short 
time give edible onions for the table. 

The illustration (Fig. 63) shows a 
multiplier onion. A cross-section (Fig. 
64) shows that it has three "hearts" 
or " cores." As these cores grow, each 
gives rise to a separate bulb. If allowed to remain in the 
ground, each part develops two or more cores; and so the 
multiplication continues. When planted, the parts or 




A multiplier onion 
(X about %). -^-p (( nnvaii 



The Early Onions 



145 



cores are separated and planted as if they were sets; or if 
they do not readily separate in the hand, the entire onion 
is planted and a cluster of young onions is produced. 

Multiplier onions seldom produce flowers and seeds. If 
not harvested for green onions, the small bulb grows into 
a large one which again breaks up into small ones. Some- 
times the multiplier onions are planted in autumn. These 
plants are really perennials, continuing themselves by suc- 
cessive division of the bulb, whereas the ordinary seed 
onion is usually biennial. 

All green or " bunch " onions, whether grown from bulbs 
or seeds, may be planted very thick. Usually they stand 
as close as 2 inches in the row. Often the rows are wide, 
so that three or four bulbs may stand abreast, but this in- 
creases the difficulties of tillage and weeding ; but it may be 
said that weeds are usually not troublesome early in the 
season, if the land is clean to start with. 

The little onions, or "acorns," from the flower-cluster 
of the top onion resume growth in spring, as if they were 
sets, and soon give an agreeable table 
supply. If left in the ground, the fol- 
lowing year they will send up flower- 
stalks the same as will ordinary dry 
onions; but instead of producing only 
flowers and seeds, they will bear a 
greater or lesser number of bulbels 
with the flowers. In old gardens, even 
in the Northern States, a row of these 
plants is sometimes allowed to grow at will year after 
year, supplying enough little bulbs to afford the table 
supply of green onions. 




. Cross-section of a 
multiplier onion, 
showing the cores, 
of -which there are 
three in this case. 



146 



Bulh or Onion Crops 



Early onions are grown to a considerable extent from 
transplanted seedlings. This method is sometimes known 
as " the new onion culture." The plants are started Janu- 
ar}^, February or March in hotbeds or the forcing-house, 
and are transplanted to the open when the season will per- 
mit. In mild climates, as California, onion seedlings may 
be transplanted in spring from seed-beds sown in autumn. 
The large quick-growing southern types of onions, as Gi- 
braltar and Prizetaker, may be grown to perfection in the 
North by this method, whereas the season may not be long 
enough for plants started in the open. Of course these 
transplanted onions may be carried through to maturity 
for autumn and winter use as are other onions grown from 
seeds, and extra quality bulbs may be produced. 

Main-Crop Dry Onions 
The general commercial onion supply is the crop of ma- 
ture ripened bulbs, harvested and cured in autumn and 
sold in bulk as are potatoes. This main-season crop is 
grown from seeds, sown directly in the field where the 
crop is to grow. Earliness is not particularly desired, and 
there is less necessity, therefore, of making heavy appli- 
cations of fertilizers which are quickly available. All 
onion lands need to be well fertilized, however, particu- 
larly with the materials rather rich in potash. Onions are 
relatively surface feeders; therefore the top of the soil 
should be very finely prepared, and the fertilizer should not 
be plowed under. Every attention should be given to pre- 
venting the soil from baking and to keeping the surface 
in uniformly good tilth. Fig. 65 shows the graceful curves 
in an onion. 



Dry Onions 



147 



Soils that become dry and hard produce a poor crop of 
onions. The best soils are those naturally loose and moist. 
Lowland areas are usually 
chosen for the growing of 
commercial onions. Ee- 
claimed marshes, from 
which the roots and peat 
have been removed, are ex- 
cellent. It is also of great 
advantage to have level 
land, as it facilitates the 
use of the hand tools and 
the finger work so essen- 
tial in the growing of a 
good crop of onions. 

It is customary to pre- 
pare onion land the pre- 
ceding autumn. This not 
only insures earliness but 
it also allows the surface 
to become weathered and 
comminuted so that it is 
in perfect condition for the 
seeds as soon as the season 
opens. All clods and 
stones should be removed 
by a garden rake, horse 
weeder, or other fine- 
toothed tool. The land should have been in good culti- 
vation for some years previous, if possible, that it may not 
contain seeds of weeds; for weeds are difficult to eradicate 




A globe onion (X 



» 



148 



Bulb or Onion Crops 



in an onion bed. Eaw and coarse stable manures are rarely 
nsed for onions because they make the land rough and keep 
it too open, and they usually bring in seeds of weeds. 
Lowlands usually have sufficient humus, but if they have 
not, it may be supplied by top-dressings of old and fine 
manure. Commercial fertilizers are usually to be advised 
in preference to fresh stable manures. It is customary to 
apply wood ashes as a surface dressing either in autumn 
or spring. This is likely to improve the structure of the 
soil and it adds an available supply of potash and phos- 
phoric acid. Lands that contain relatively little vegetable 
matter and are rather dry in spring may receive an appli- 
cation of a soluble nitrogenous fertilizer. 

The seeding. 

Onion seed germinates rather slowly and the plantlets 
are delicate and slender-rooted (Figs. 66, 67). The 
plants must take hold at once if they are to make a good 



careful treatment of the surface soil as the onion. 

Onion seed should be sown as early in the spring as pos- 
sible. This is because the onion delights in a cool season, 
and also because the plants should become established before 
the dry hot weather of summer. In garden practice, the 
seed should be sown thick, for there is likely to be failure 
of the seeds to germinate ; and if the first sowing does not 




66. Onion seeds (X 4). 



growth. The onion-bed con- 
dition of tilth is considered by 
gardeners to be the measure of 
good treatment of land. ISTo 
vegetable-garden crop raised 
on a large scale demands such 



Dry Onions 



149 



give a good stand it is rarely advisable to make a second 
sowing because of the lateness of the season. In field cul- 
ture, thinning is expensive, and 
one must take great care to 
secure good and viable seed. 
The seed is sown with various 
kinds of hand seed-drills, some 
of which sow several rows at a 
time. The rows stand about 14 
inches apart, varying, however, 
from 12 to 18 inches. In the 
rows the plants are thinned to 
2 to 5 inches, depending on the 
size of the bulb in the par- 
ticular variety. For field-crop 
onions, about 5 to 6 pounds 
of seeds are sown to the acre. The intervals between the 
rows are commonly 14 inches. 

The character of the crop depends very largely on the 
seed stock. The onion quickly runs down or deteriorates 
if the stock is not carefully selected and grown. Cheap 
onion seed is always to be avoided. Those who make a busi- 
ness of growing onions prefer to buy seed from parties 
whom they know, even though it costs twice as much as the 
ordinary seed of the markets. Poor seed may mean mixed 
varieties, lack of uniformity in the crop, the production of 
" scallions " or onions that do not make larofe bulbs. 




67. Onion seedlings (X %)• 



Field practices. 

Tillage is by means of hand wheel-hoes. If the land is 
rough, hard and uneven, these hoes cannot be worked to 



150 



Bulb or Onion Crops 



the best advantage. The land should be so finely pulver- 
ized that the lumps and clods do not roll on the young 
plants. • Usually the onion patch will need to be weeded by 
hand once or twice early in the season, although in land 
that is very clean and free of weeds this expense may 
not be necessary. The better the preparation of the land 
the year before, the less will be the trouble and expense of 
growing the onion crop. 

On some soils onions tend to run too much to top, par- 
ticularly on those newly turned over from sod, or that are 
wet, or those that have received too great an application of 
rough stable manures. Dry soils and dry seasons tend to 
produce small top growth and a relatively large bulb, al- 
though the plants may mature so early that the bulbs do 
not reach the actual size they attain on moister land. If 
the tops are still rank and green late in August, or early 
in September, and show little tendency of ripening natur- 
ally, it is well to break them down to check the growth. A 
common way of doing this is to roll a barrel lengthwise the 
rows. The best onion crops, however, are those that ripen 
naturally. Late growth is sometimes due to the seed. If 
seed is from plants that have been grown for a number of 
years in a long-season and moist climate, as in England, 
the progeny tend to grow very late.* 

The onion is a somewhat difficult crop to handle and to 
store unless the autumn season is warm and one has good 
facilities for handling the bulbs. The onions are usually 
allowed to dry or cure for a day or two before they are 
put into storage. If they cannot be handled in the field, 
they should be cured under cover, for the bulbs should be 



*0n this point consult Bailey, Bull. 31, Mich. Agric. Coll. 42 (1887). 



Dry Onions 



151 



dry and free from earth when they are sent to market or 
put into winter storage. Curing under cover is more ex- 
pensive than curing in the field, but it usually gives 
brighter-colored bulbs and is to be advised Avhen one caters 
to a special market. 

The tops must be removed. It is customary to pull the 
onions before the topping is done. Three or four rows of 
onions are thrown into one, making a small windrow. 
After they have cured for two or three days, the tops are 
removed with strong shears, or usually with a shoe-knife. 
The tops are cut about one-half inch above the bulb. If 
they are cut shorter than this the bulb is likely to rot or 
shrivel, and if they are cut much longer it has an untidy 
appearance. The top should be cut off clean, leaving no 
ragged ends, and care should be taken not to tear the cov- 
ering of the bull) itself. Some growers cut the tops from 
the bulbs before the crop is harvested. This may be done 
if the tops have died naturally. It is usually rather more 
expeditious than the other way. The bulbs are pulled by 
hand or a potato- 
fork; but in large 
areas an attachment 
is rigged to a culti- 
vator to cut under 
the onions and lift 
them out. 

If the crop is un- 
even, as will usually 
be the case, it is advisable to grade the bulbs if the best 
prices are to be secured. All small, inferior, misshapen 
bulbs are removed, and also those of unusual color. A good 




Shed in ^-hich onions are stored temporarily. 



152 



Bull) or Onion Crops 



means of grading onion bulbs is to run them over a rack 
with slat bottom, or other form of grader, the slats being 
at such distance apart as . to allow the large bulbs to pass 
over, but to catch all the small ones and to drop them 
through the spaces. The large bulbs are worked over the 
end of the table into baskets or barrels. 



Storing. 

Mature onions ordinarily will not stand freezing and 
thawing. Therefore, if they are stored for the winter, 
they must be put in a frost-proof place. They must be 
kept dry. Winter store-houses in the North are often pro- 
vided with fire heat. Onions may be frozen with safety, 
however, provided they do not thaw out until spring and 
the thawing is then gradual. They may be stored in 
the loft on the north side of a building, where the sun 
does not strike the roof, and covered several feet thick 

with straw or 
loose hay. In the 
' spring the straw 
is gradually re- 
moved and they 
are allowed to 
thaw slowly. 
"When thp winter 
temperature is 
very uniform, 
this method of 
keeping onions may be safe; but in regions of marked 
fluctuations in winter temperature it is not to be recom- 
mended. 




storage-house for onions. 



Dnj Onions 



153 




70. Seeds of leek (X 6). 



Most onion-growers prefer to sell the crop in the fall. 
Usually it is put in temporary storage in open sheds, much 
as corn is stored in the crib. One of these sheds is shown 
in Fig. 68. There are wide spaces 
in the outside boarding of the shed, 
and the floor is raised a few inches 
above the ground and cracks are left 
in it. The eaves should project enough 
to carry all water clear of the sides. 
If the onions are dry and clean when 
put into storage and the tops have been 
carefully removed, the onions may l^e 
stored several feet deep in narrow 
bins or cribs of this kind. 

Erost-proof storage-houses are most reliable. They are 
provided with good ventilation, and kept near freezing 

temperature. Only mature 
well-cured onions should 
be stored in them, and 
particular attention should 
be given to having only 
rot-free bulbs. Fig. 69 
represents " a good onion 
storage-house," drawn 
from T. Munn, Bull. 
437, of the Tv^ew York 
(Geneva) Experiment Sta- 
tion. 




71. Seedlings of leek (X %)• 

The 'kinds. 

Varieties of onions are 
size of bulb, shape, color. 



many. They dilfer in season, 
quality, keeping ability. The 



154 



Bulb or Onion Crops 



yellow-skinned varieties are popular for dry onions. 
Danvers (Yellow Danvers) is a favorite; as also Globe 
Danvers and the very similar Southport Globe, Weathers- 
field, and others. The so-called Italian and Spanish 
onions are "asually larger and require a longer season than 

most of the American 
types. The Bermuda 
and Texas onions are 
mostly of this Euro- 
pean family. At 
present the globe type 
of onion is most in 
demand, whereas 
formerly the flat 
onions were most pop- 
ular. The fashions 
may be expected to 
change, as in other 
crops. 

OTHER ALLIACEOUS 
CROPS 

Leek (Figs. 70, 71, 
72) is perhaps the 
most important, in 
this country, of the 
minor alliaceous 
plants. It should be better known. Its flavor is usually 
milder than that of the onion. The soft bulb, scarcely 
thicker than the neck, and the thick leaves are used in 
cookery. The plant requires the entire season in the 
northern parts of the country. Seeds are sown earl}^ in 




Leek plant (X I/")- 



Leelc and Garlic 



155 



spring as for onions, and the plants thinned or trans- 
planted to stand 4 to 6 inches apart, the rows being one 
foot or so apart. The plants are transplanted in early 
summer if especially good results are desired. Usually 
the plants are blanched for a considerable height above 
the crown by hilling or growing in trenches. Leeks are 
stored after the manner of celer}^ or they may be left in 
the ground if the climate is not very severe. In the South, 



the seed is sown in autumn, also sometimes in the North 
and the plants carried over in frames. 

Garlic (Fig. 73) is grown from "cloves,^' which are the 
separable parts of compound bulbs, comparable in some 
ways with multiplier onions. These cloves or bulblets are 
planted in early spring; the compound bulbs mature in 
summer or early autumn, and after cured are commonly 
sold in bunches made by braiding the tops together. The 
plant rarely bears flowers. 




73, Garlic, with the outer skin or tunic 
removed (X about 1). 



74. Welsh onion 



156 



Bulb or Onion Crops 



Cihoule, or Welsh onion (Fig. 74), is like a common 
onion without the expanded bulb. It is grown for its 
leaves, which are used in seasoning. It is mild in flavor. 

Propagated from 
seeds as are onions. 

Shallot is V e r y 
like garlic in man- 
ner of growth, but 
the cloves are sepa- 
rate at maturity, 
whereas they are in- 
closed in a common 
skin in the garlic. 
They are mild in 
flavor. Cultivation 
as for garlic. Much 
of the stock known as shallot is only a form of onion 
(Fig. 75), either the multiplier type or small bunched 
onions in the spring. 

Chive or Chives (Give) is a small perennial growing in 
dense tufts and not producing distinct bulbs. The leaves 
are used for seasoning. It is perfectly hardy. It is a 
neat and interesting plant for a permanent edging along 
the garden walk. It is propagated by division of the 
clumps, although it sometimes seeds freely. The leaves 
are cut off as needed. When the vitality begins to decline, 
the plants are taken up, divided, and the parts re-set. 

The Onion Plants 
Allium. Liliacece. Probably 300 species, widely distributed 
in the northern temperate regiorls of the globe, biennials and 




75. A form of onion, often known as shallot. 



Botany of the Onions 



157 



perennials, mostly bulbous. Many species are native to North 
America, some of them being known as leeks. The wild 
species often produce bulbels in the flower-cluster, as does the 
" top onion." The plants carry the characteristic alliaceous 
odor, of which the onion flavor is one of the manifestations. 
The black angular seeds of these plants do not long retain 
their vitality ; 2 to 3 years is the usual longevity. Many of 
the edible forms have been domesticated from prehistoric 
time, the onions and others being considerably modified through 
long cultivation. The plants have brought with them several 
of the ancient substantive names : prason, the Greek word for 
leek, now preserved to us in such combinations as Schceno- 
prasum (rush- or reed-leek), Scorodoprasum (compounded of 
Greek words for garlic and leek, anciently used for a kind 
of garlic), Ameloprasum (vine-leek) ; Porrum, Latin word 
for leek, allied to Greek prason; Cepa, the Latin cwpa, an 
onion. 

A. Leaves fistulose (cylindrical and hollow). 

B. Plant a "tufted perennial, without prominent bulbs, growing in mats. 

1. A. Schocnoprasum. 

BB. Plant mostly biennial or plur-biennial, usually with evident bulb 
or bulb-like enlargement. — ONIONS proper. 
C. The leaves large, not numerous. 

Bulb large and prominent. 2. A. Cepa. 

Bulb little thicker than the neck or crown. 

3. A. Ustulosum. 
CC. The leaves small, awl-shaped, numerous. 4. A. ascalonicum. 
AA. Leaves plane or flat (.not fistulose). 

B. Bulb of several parts or cloves. 5. A. sativum. 

BB. Bulb simple, not much enlarged. 6. A. Porrum. 

1. A, Schoenoprasum, Linn. Sp. PI. 301. Chive. Erect 
glabrous perennial, 6 in. to 2 ft. high when in bloom, growing 
in tough clumps or tufts : stems enlarged somewhat into long 
slender bulbous bases ; roots many and tough : leaves many 
in the clump, grasslike, some of them radical and others 
sheathing the stems, terete, hollow, long-pointed, usually equal- 
ling or surpassing the scapes : flowers rose-purple, many in 
a single terminal head which is subtended by the two thin 



158 



Bulh or Onion Crops 



spatlie-bracts ; perianth segments lance-acuminate, % to in. 
long and mostly equalling or exceeding the slender pedicels; 
stamens (6) included; pistil single, a long straight stj'le aris- 
ing from the summit of the emarginate ovary : fruit (capsule) 
splitting into 3 parts, several-seeded, the seeds black, about 
Ys in. long, oblong and pointed on either end, convex on the 
back, keeled on the front, weighing about 1 nig. — Native in 
Europe and Asia ; the native plant in the U. S. is now sep- 
arated as var. sihiricum, Hartm,, or as A. siMricum, Linn. 
It is not unlikely that more than one plant is in cultivation 
as chives. 

2. A. Cepa, Linn. Sp. PI. 300. Onion. Mostly biennial, 
not cespitose (not growing in tufts or sods), glabrous and 
glaucous : bulb large, much expanded, globular, oblong, coni- 
cal, oblate, or other forms, the outside membranes thin and 
tunicate : leaves the first year radical, sheathing over each 
other at base and forming a neck, long and pointed, soft, 
hollow, swollen in the lower half : stem (produced usually 
the second year) simple, straight and erect, 2 to 4 ft. high, 
hollow, much enlarged, swollen below the middle, much over- 
topping the few or many prominently sheathing leaves, some- 
times the stem-leaves disappearing before flowering : flowers 
numerous, lilac or whitish in a large terminal globular umbel- 
late head subtended by 2 or 3 reflexed spathe-bracts, about 
14 ill- long and borne on slender radiating pedicels % to 1 in. 
or more long; perianth segments narrowly lanceolate, acute, 
the stamens exserted, the filaments of the 3 inner stamens 
very broad at the base and lobed or toothed on either side; 
ovary globose or depressed-globose, smooth, with a single style : 
fruit dehiscing into three parts : seed black, about % in. long, 
nearly as broad as long, convex on the back and angled on 
the front, usually irregularly shrunken, weighing 3 to 5 mg. 
— Western Asia. Var. viviparum, Metz, acc. Alef. Landw. FL 
301. 1866. (Var. 'bull) ellif era, Bailey, Princ. Yeg. Gard. Ed. 1, 
316. 1901.) Top Onion. Bulb small, undeveloped; bulbels 
borne in the flower-cluster with the flowers, and used for pur- 
poses of propagation ; • sometimes the cluster is proliferous, 



Botany of the Onions 



159 



sending out flower-bearing (and bulbel-bearing) branches. 
Var. solaninum, Alef. 1. e. 300. (Var. multipUcans, Bailey, 
Princ. Yeg. Gard. Ed. 1, 316. 1901.) Potato Onion. Multi- 
plier Onion. Plant propagating by the natural division of the 
parent bulb: flowering stems (not often produced) short and 
slender, the umbel few-flowered. 

3. A. fistulosum, Linn. Sp. PI. 301. Welsh Onion. Spring 
Onion. Ciboule. Differs from A. Cepa in its more clustered 
or cespitose habit, more leafy and the leaves usually equaling 
or surpassing the stem, the bulbs little exceeding the broad 
soft stem-base : stem short and stout, 12 to 20 in. high, much 
swollen throughout its middle part and tapering to the flower- 
head : flowers white or hyaline, in a dense terminal head, 
stamens long-exserted, alternate filaments broadened 'at the 
base, -perianth % ia. long and about equaling or even exceed- 
ing the pedicel, segments long-acuminate : seeds onion-like, 
about 2 mg. in weight. — Native in Asia. 

4. A. ascalonicum, Linn. Amoen. Acad, iv, 454. 1788. Shal- 
lot. Differs from A. Cepa in its small stature, slender awl- 
like leaves, and small ovate-oblong or oblong-conical gray 
more or less angular bulbs that break up into several distinct 
bulbs that cohere at the base : flowers (seldom produced) white 
or violet, in globose heads, the perianth scarcely exceeding 
the pedicel, segments spreading, oblong-lanceolate and acute. 
— Supposed to be Asian, but not certainly known in an indig- 
enous state; by some writers thought to be a form of A. Cepa. 
It is doubtful whether the true shallot is in common cultiva- 
tion ; see page 15(]. The plant bears the name of Ascalon, east- 
ern Mediterranean. 

5. A. sativum, Linn. Sp. PI. 296. Garlic. A weak-grow- 
ing flat-leaved plant of strong characteristic odor, producing 
several distinct hard parts or cloves, each with its integument, 
all inclosed in a silky-thin white or pink envelope comprising 
the compound mother bulb (the delicate envelopes sometimes 
decay and vanish if the mature bulbs are left too long in the 
ground, particularly if the season or the place is wet) ; planted 
in early spring, these cloves grow rapidly, produce another 



160 



Bulb or Onion Crops 



compound bulb, and the leaves die down in summer, leaving 
no trace above ground : flowers seldom produced. — Southern 
Europe. 

6. A. Porrum, Linn. Sp. PI. 295. {A. Ampeloprasum, Linn., 
var. Porrum, Gay, Ann. Sci. Nat. 3d ser. viii, 218. 1847.) 
Leek. Stout vigorous glabrous green very slightly glaucous 
, biennial : bulb single, not much broader than the stout neck 
and gradually passing into it, with numerous stout roots be- 
neath it: leaves equitant, keeled, 2 to 3 ft. long and at the 
base to 2 in. wide, very long-pointed : flower-stem slender, 
pithy and not fistulose, 2-3 ft., leafy below, the bulb more 
evident : flowers borne in a terminal umbellate head, sub- 
tended by a single spathe-bract, color pinkish, in. long, 
much exceeded by the pedicels ; segments lance-ovate, acute, the 
midnerve usually colored; anthers exserted, the filaments of 
3 of them very broad and with a slender branch on either 
side near the top exceeding the anther ; ovary conic, the style 
arising within the notched top : fruit dehiscing into 3 parts : 
seeds black, about 1/6 in. long, onion-like, weighing 2 to 4 mg. 
— Not certainly known wild ; considered to be an ameliorated 
form of A. Ampeloprasum, of Europe and western Asia. 

A related plant is A. Scorodoprasum, Linn., the rocam- 
bole, sometimes cultivated for uses like garlic, native in 
Europe; it is a lesser plant than the leek, with smaller umbels 
which bear bulbels, the stamens not exserted; the ovoid bulb 
bears stalked offsets or bulblets. 



CHAPTER YII 



ROOT CROPS 

Beet Parsnip 

Eadisli Celeriac 

Turnip Chervil 

Rutabaga Salsify 

Horse-radish Scorzonera 

Carrot Scolymus 

Root crops require a cool season and deep soil. They are 
grown in drills, and usually are not transplanted. They 
are used both as main-season and secondary crops. All are 
hardy. No particular ingenuity or skill is required in 
growing them. 

The necessity of deep soil is apparent when one consid- 
ers that the value of a root depends to a large extent on its 
straightness or symmetry. In hard and shallow lands roots 
are short and they tend to be branched and irregular. 
Fine tilth does much to insure quick growth, and quick 
growth improves the quality. Tile-draining and subsoil- 
ing greatly improve land to be used for root crops. The 
use of clover as a green-manure is also desirable, as it 
loosens and ameliorates the soil to a greater depth than 
most other green-manure crops. 

Most root crops succeed best in cool soil. They thrive 
in the North, or in the cool season in the South. Those 

(161) 



162 



Root Crops 



that do not require the entire season in which to complete 
their growth nsuall}' tlirive best in spring and autumn. 

Root crops are of two general classes as respects the pur- 
poses for which the}^ are grown — fodder crops and oler- 
aceous crops. The former are not intended here ; neither 
are sugar-beets. Most of the vegetable-gardening root 
crops are al^le to secure their food from relativeh^ unavail- 
able combinations, and the}" generalh^ use rather freeh' of 
potash, although they are also heav}' nitrogen and phos- 
phorus feeders. To start them quickl}^ a light dressing of 
available nitrogen compound is useful, particularh* if the 
roots are needed for a particular season. These crops, as 
a class, are supposed to be more exhaustive of the plant- 
food elements than the cereals and legumes. 

The earliness of the root crop in market-garden han- 
dling is likely to make all the difference between success 
and failure. The earliness is determined largely, accord- 
ing to Yoorhees, "by the amount and availability of the 
nitrogen and phosphoric acid applied." Frequent top- 
dressings of soluble nitrates are advised. An application 
of 1,000 to 1,500 pounds of the basic fertilizer (page 
383) "is frequently employed at time of seeding, followed 
by a top-dressing of 50 to 100 pounds of nitrate of soda 
to the acre once every week or ten day?, for at least three 
or four weeks after the plants have well started.''^ 

Probably the most laborious part of the growing of root 
crops is the harvesting, particularly of the long late kinds. 
This labor is much lessened by plowing out the roots. 
Even if the roots are too deep for the plow, two or three 
furrows may be thrown from either side of the row. and 
the pulling is made easier. I"sually. hand-pulling is 



The Roots 



163 



unnecessary. As soon as the roots are out, the tops should be 
cut off about an inch above the crown, if the crop is to be 
stored or sold in bulk. The roots should lie in the sun un- 
til the earth is dry enough to shake from them, when they 
may be stored in the pit or cellar or sent to market. They 
are easy to keep. 

The market value of a root depends largely on its looks. 
All strong side roots should be cut off, and branchy speci- 
mens should be discarded. Early in the year, such roots 
as beet, carrot, radish, and turnip are sold in bunches of 
6 to 12; but as the season advances and prices fall, they 
are sold in bulk. When sold in bunches, care should be 
taken to have all the specimens in the bunch of uniform 
size and shape. The leaves are allowed to remain, and the 
bunches are tied neatly by a tape or other cord passed 
around the leaf-stalks. The bunches should be kept well 
sprinkled and away from the sun, for wilted leaves give 
them a stale and unattractive appearance. 

Seeds of these crops are grown from roots carried over 
winter. Plant the roots in spring, the crown level with 
the surface of the ground, 2 feet or more apart. Flower- 
stalks are soon sent up, and seeds are usually produced 
freely. 

The species of roots may be assembled by their botani- 
cal affinities. The beets of all kinds are allied to spinach 
and the pigweeds (Chenopodiacege) . The radish, turnip, 
rutabaga, horse-radish are cruciferous, being members of 
the Cruciferaa or Mustard family and therefore allied to 
the cole crops. Others are umbelliferous, belonging to the 
Umbelliferse or Parsley family, as carrot, parsnip, celeriac, 
tuberous-rooted chervil. Salsify, scorzonera, scolymus are 



164 



Root Crops 



compositoiTS, representing the Sunflower family, Com- 
po sitae. 

BEET 

A loose deep rich fresh relatively cool soil and a con- 
tinuous groivth are the prime requisites in the cultivation 
of garden l)eet. It is usually a companion- or succession- 
crop in the vegetable- gar den. The crop is hardy and easy 
to raise. The round varieties are relatively surface feeders 
and early in growth. The land should he Icept well tilled 
to conserve moisture and to keep down weeds, particularly 
in the early part of the season. 

Sow in drills as soon as the ground is ready, and thin to 
5 to 8 in. apart ; the thinnings may be used as greens. The 
drills should be far enough apart to admit of wheel-hoe till- 
age, — 12 to 18 in. Field beets should be far enough apart for 
horse tillage, 20 to 30 in. Five to eight pounds of seed are 
required for an acre; 1 ounce sows 75 to 100 feet of drill. 
Seed is covered about 1 in. deep. Average crop is 300 to 400 
bushels to the acre. 

Leaf-spot {Cercospora deticola) . — Ashen gray leaf spots, 
each surrounded by a reddish purple border, are characteristic 
symptoms. Frequently the central tissue drops out and the 
leaf presents a shot-holed appearance. As the outer leaves 
die off, new ones are formed, thus elongating the crown of 
the beet. Control: Sanitary measures in the field together 
with crop rotation are beneficial. A thorough application of 
bordeaux mixture at intervals will afford control. 

Spinach leaf-miner {Pegomyia liyoscyami). — A whitish 
maggot, Ys in. long when full-grown, that mines the leaves 
of beet, spinach, orach, and chard. The mine is at first 
thread-like but soon enlarges and becomes a blotch. Many 
maggots often infest the same leaf. The insect also breeds on 
lamb's quarters (pigweed). Control: Clean culture and the 



The Beet 



165 



destruction of its wild food plants ; with some crops the injury 
may be avoided by growing the plants either early in the 
spring or late in autumn, when the insect is less abundant. 

Sugar-beet webworm {Loxostege sticticalis). — A yellowish 
white caterpillar marked on the back with three dark stripes, 
about, 1 in. in length when full-grown, that devours the leaves 
and covers its feeding grounds with a slight silken web. Con- 
trol: Spray with 3 lbs. paris green in 100 gals, of water to 
which 6 lbs. of whale-oil soap or 3 lbs. of lime are added, 
or dust the plants with paris green, 2 to 4 lbs. in 100 lbs. 
air-slaked lime. 

Hawaiian beet webw^orm {Hymcnia fascialis). — A small 
slender pale green caterpillar which skeletonizes the under- 
side of the leaves ; restricted to the Southern States. Control: 
Spray with arsenate of lead (paste), 2 lbs. in 50 gals, of water, 
taking care to hit the underside of the leaves. 

Spotted beet webworm {IJjimenia perspectalis) . — A small 
shining green caterpillar marked with rows of small black 
dots that at first skeletonizes the leaves but later eats the 
whole leaf; restricted to the Southern States. Control: Same 
as for the preceding species. 

Southern beet webworm (Pachyzancla Mpunctalis) . — A 
glossy dark dirty green caterpillar, about % in. long when 
full-grown that devours the foliage, folding and webbing the 
leaves together with silken threads. Control: Same as for the 
spotted beet webworm. 

Two general types of beets are grown for vegetable- 
gardening purposes: the short-season turnip varieties 
(Fig. 76) and the main-season long-rooted varieties. Cer- 
tain oval half -long types are intermediate in season. The 
long-rooted varieties are less popular than formerly, for 
the turnip varieties may be grown in autumn for winter 
use, and fresh beets are to be had from the South in 
winter. Formerly the long blood beet was used for stock- 
feeding to some extent, but the mangel-wurzel has largely 



166 



Root Crops 



taken its place. The early beets lend themselves well to 
the intensive practices of market-gardeners. 

The soil for beets, particularly for the early kinds, 
should be mellow and quick, on the loamy order. Hard, 
poorly-tilled and cloddy lands are not adapted. Fresh 

manure is usually 
avoided, but well- 
rotted manure is used 
freely, and chemical 
fertilizers are desir- 
able. 

The plants should 
be kept growing con- 
tinuously. They 
seldom completely re- 
cover from a marked 
check or setback, at 
least not in time for 
a dated early market. 
Good frequent level 
tillage is required. 

Beet seeds require 
considerable moisture 
to germinate. This is 
because the " seeds " 
are really fruit clusters 
with hard shells, each cluster containing two or three small 
seeds (Fig. 77). The husks or walls of the fruit are rela- 
tively impervious to water. Therefore, if sown late in 
the season special care should be taken to have a moist 
seed-bed. For the reason that the fruits rather than the 




76. Young turnip-rooted 
beets (X 



The Beet 



167 



seeds are sown, beets are likely to come up in little clumps, 
and careful thinning is essential if the best results are to 
be secured. Specially constructed seed-drills, or special 
attachments, are necessary 
for the proper sowing of 
the rough uneven-sized 
seeds of beets. Young 
plants of beet are seen in 
Fig. 78. 

Vegetable-gardeners now 
chiefly know the early 
turnip-rooted varieties. These 
either as a spring or fall crop. 




Fruit clusters of beet (X 2) 

varieties may 
They mature in two to 



be grown 



three months (60 to 90 days) and roots large enough for 
bunching of some of the earliest varieties may be had in 
six weeks to two months. 

The early turnip varieties of beet may be sown as soon as 
the land can be worked in spring if one wishes to secure 
an early crop. They may be followed by a later crop, as 
celer}^, late potatoes, cabbage or cauliflower. In some 

cases, they are grown 
^ as a companion-crop in 
the rows with a main- 
season crop, as cab- 



78. Seedlings of garden beet (X about %). 




For very early 
results, it is well to 
sow the early varieties 
in hotbeds, or cold- 
frames. They may be allowed to mature in the frames, or 
in special cases they may be transplanted into beds, al- 
though transplanting . is rarely done, as it does not pay. 



168 



Root Crops 



For home use^ two or three rows fifty feet long, the seeds 
being sown at intervals (as every fortnight) extending 
over a month or two, should give a sufficient supply for 
the spring and early summer. 

For autumn use the turnip-rooted beets may be sown in 
July and August, or, in some places, even as late as the 
first of September. When sown late, however, it is impor- 
tant that the land should have been well tilled previous to 
sowing, that it may not be too dry. The firmest and best 
roots may be stored for winter in pits or in the cellar in 
boxes of earth or moss. 

The long or blood beets are usually sown in early May in 
tlie Northern States, and they occupy the ground the 
whole season. The half -long kinds are useful in autumn 
and winter, and they may be sown later than the long 
kinds, following early peas or other crop. 

Young beets are much used for greens. They are rarely 
grown especially for this purpose, but the seed is sown 
thick and the thinnings are sold in bunches or in small 
packages. The whole plant, root and top, is thus used as 
a potherb. Certain kinds of beets produce thick leaves 
rather than roots; these are essentially leaf crops and are 
discussed under that head. See Chard, page 59. 

Early beets are usually sold in bunches of about six, be- 
fore the roots are full grown, but the later crop is sold in 
baskets, crates, and barrels. The price depends much on 
the earliness and freshness of the product. 

Good early and mid-season beets are Egyptian, Bassano, 
Eclipse, Bastian, Detroit Dark Bed, Crimson Globe, Co- 
lumbia, Edmand. A standard winter variety is Long 
Blood. There are many other good varieties. 



Botany of the Beet 



169 



The Beet Plant 

Beta. Chenopodiacece. Perhaps a half dozen species of 
herbaceous plants, biennial and perennial, on the coasts of 
Europe, Asia and Africa. 

B. vulgaris, Linn. Sp. PL 222. (B. esculenta, Salisb. Prodr. 
152. 1796. B. vulgaris var. esculenta, Guerke, in Richter- 
Guerke, PI. Eur. ii, 127. 1897.) Cultivated Beet. Biennial 
(rarely annual), glabrous, smooth, the growing parts often 
red, yellow or metallic-green (particularly midribs and 
petioles : taproot thickened into a single downright tuber, 
in many sizes, shapes and colors : stem produced the second 
year, one from the top of the tuber and sometimes a few 
small supplementary ones, slender and grooved, erect but fall- 
ing with the load of fruit, much branched and leafy, the 
main stem 2 to 4 ft. tall : leaves in a tuft from the crown, the 
blade ovate to oblong-ovate in outline, truncate or semi-cordate 
or abruptly tapering at base, obtuse or muticous, the margins 
undulate and entire or irregularly sinuate-dentate, the slender 
petiole usually exceeding the blade ; stem leaves petioled, 
smaller, the lower ones of similar shape to the radical leaves, 
those in the inflorescence passing into linear spreading bracts : 
flowers greenish, very small, sessile, in long paniculate racemes, 
the plant producing great numbers on its many slender 
branches, usually about 2 or 3 flowers together, with minute 
bractlets beneath the perianth, which has 5 incurving parts, 
on the inside of which parts are the 5 stamens ; ovary 1, 
sunk in a disc or hypanthium, the styles usually 3 and with 
blunt or ovate stigmas ; the perianth and disc are persistent, 
inclosing the single seed in a hard case bearing corky protu- 
berances which are the thickened and modified perianth-parts, 
the 2 or more flowers in the cluster growing together by their 
bases and forming the very irregular fruit-mass known as 
the " seed " of commerce ; this fruit-mass weighs 5 to .50 mg., 
and on the faces of it one is able to make out the 5 promi- 
nences of the different flower-parts ; longevity of seed about 
5 or 6 years. — Unknown wild; regarded as an ameliorated 



170 



Boot Crops 



form of B. vulgaris var. perennis. Linn. (B. mai^itima, Linn. 
B. vulgaris var. maritima, Kocb), of tlie sea-coasts of western 
Europe, a very different looking plant, perennial, witli long 
hard thick-branclied root, smaller leaves, and many prostrate 
or decumbent stems. The evolution of the beet is a remark- 
able example of modification, in which the whole habit and 
habitat of the plant have been changed. The sugar-beet (B. 
vulgaris var. saccliarifera, Alef.) is part of this modification. 
The mangel-wurzel, or mangold of English and American writ- 
ing, is another form of it. In North America the beet is 
thought of in relation to its thick edible root, but another race 
is developed in its leaves rather than in its roots. We may 
therefore distinguish the leaf -beet and the root-beet; in Eng- 
land the latter is known as beet-root; in France the leaf- 
beets are known as poire. 

Var. Cicia, Linn. Sp. PI. 222. Leaf-Beet. Root down- 
ward, not developed into a fleshy edible part, sometimes 
branched : leaves much developed, usually larger and broader 
than in the common l;eet, sometimes 2 ft. long, the midrib 
usually broad and often fleshy. Here belong the ornamental- 
leaved beets and also the Swiss chard. The word Cicla refers 
to Sicily. 

RADISH 

QuicJc and continuous growth, carefully selected seed, 
rather cool weatJier for the early huncliing I'inds, protec- 
tion from the root-maggot — these are prime considerations 
in the growing of radishes. The radish is a partial-season 
crop. It is easy to grow on ligJit fertile land. 

Radishes are usually sown as early in spring as the ground 
is fit, even before the frosts are past. Sow in rows 6 to 12 
in. apart, or farther apart if a wheel-hoe is to be used. 
Cover % to % in. Thin 1 to 3 in. apart, depending on variety. 
For family use, sow at intervals of 7 to 10 days. As the sea- 
son advances, choose a cooler site, as a northern exposure. 



The Radish 



171 



Usiiallj' the sowings are discontinued from the last of June 
until late August. One ounce of seed sows 100 feet or more 
of drill ; 8 to 10 lbs. are required for an acre. 

There are no prominent diseases of the radish. 

Cabbage koot-maggot {PhorMa 'brassicw). — See detail under 
Cabbage. Radishes may be raised free from maggots by screen- 
ing the beds with cheesecloth. 

Flea-beetles. — Screening the beds with cheesecloth will pre- 
vent injury. 

Spinach aphis (Myzus persicw) . — See under Spinach. The 
first pair of leaves sometimes becomes badly infested on the 
underside. Spray with " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco extract, 1 pint 
in 100 gals, water in which 4 or 5 lbs. soap have been dis- 
solved. Do not use with bordeaux mixture on young' radish 
plants as it will stunt them. 

In North America the radish is known mostly as a 
spring crop, although it is sometimes grown in autumn. 
In the Old World, however, it is known also as a summer 
crop, but the varieties grown in the hot weather are usually 
unlike those raised in the spring and autumn. In the 
Orient (particularly Japan) it is a winter and spring veg- 
etable, extensively eaten. 

There are three general types of radish roots : the or- 
dinary small spring or autumn radish, usually light red 
or clear white (Fig. 79) ; the large turnip radishes, useful 
for summer cultivation, white, gray or black; the winter 
radishes, that make a long hard red, white or black root. 
The winter radishes are relatively little grown here, 
although deserving to be better known. They are usually 
sown late in the season, as are late turnips (July and 
August) and the roots may be kept over winter as other 
roots are stored. Some of them make roots 12 to 30 
inches long and several inches in diameter. The flesh is 



172 



Root Crops 



solid, quite different from the little table radishes eaten 
as delicacies; these winter radishes supply numbers of 
people in other countries with substantial food. 




79. A table radish. Raphanus sativus (X %)• 



Radishes are usually treated as a companion-crop when 
grown in the open field. They may be sown in drills be- 
tween the rows of cabbages, peas or other later-maturing 
vegetables. Sometimes they are sown directly in the drill 
with the other vegetables. The seeds are quick to germi- 



The Radish 



173 




nate and thereby break the crust and mark the row (Fig. 
80) and thus facilitate tillage, and the roots may be har- 
vested before the other crops need the space. For family 
use, radishes are 

often grown in beds /^"^^ "Ji^^ 

by themselves. In ' ' ^ 

clean friable land 
they are sometimes 
sown broadcast. They 
may be forced in 
winter, and grown 
for very early spring 
use in hotbeds and later in coldframes. Better roots 
and a more uniform crop are secured by sowing only 
the large seeds (Fig. 81). The small ones may be sifted 
out with a hand screen. 

If the land is loose and rich, the spring radishes should 
come to edible maturity in four to six weeks. The roots 
are of better quality when they are relatively small and 
crisp. When growth ceases the roots become stringy, 
bitter, and often hollow, and the plant runs to seed (as 



ish seedlings (X about 





81. Radish seeds (X 4). 



Pod of radish (X 1/3). 



it does also from too late sowing). Sow at frequent inter- 
vals for a succession. Radishes do not come to their 
full perfection in hard and dry land. The roots are so 



174 



Root Crops 



small and short that the plants are essentially surface 
feeders. 

If radishes are to be grown in hot weather, the land 
should be as cool as possible and supplied 
with abundance of moisture to keep them 
growing continuously. It is well to grow 
the regular summer radishes, as Stras- 
burg, but as there may not be a market 
for them, the small spring radishes may 
have to be carried into the summer. 

For the market, 
radishes are washed 
and tied in 
bunches of 4 to 10, 
with the tops left 
on. They should 
be kept moist until 
sold. If the tubers 
are graded to size, 
shape and color 
they make very at- 
tractive produce. 
The radish is annual and biennial. Eoots maturing 
late may be kept over winter and planted in the spring, 
when they quickly run to seed. Spring and summer rad- 
ishes run to seed the same season if left in the ground, but 
the best seed is produced from plants that are transplanted 
when young. Little radish seed is grown in North 
America, probably largely because of the high price of 
labor. 

Probably the most popular variety is French Breakfast, 




3. Leaf of long-pin- 
nate radish. Raph- 
anus sativus var. 
longipinnatus. 
(X Vs). 




Leaf-forms of small- 
pinnate radish. R. sativus 
var. parvipinnatus. 

(X 1/3.) 



Botany of the Radish 



175 



and various forms of the same type. Other good kinds 
are Olive-shaped, Scarlet Short-top, Wood Early Frame, 
White Box. For summer, good varieties are Icicle, Char- 
tier, Lady-finger, White Naples, White Vienna, Strasburg, 
Stuttgart. For winter. Scarlet Chinese, Celestial, Black 
Spanish, White Spanish may be mentioned. 

The Radish Plant 

Raphanus. Cruciferw. Probably 8 or 10 species, annual, 
biennial, perennial, Europe to the East Indies. 

R. sativus, Linn. Sp. PI. 669. Common Radish. Annual 
and biennial: root thickened, white to pink to purple to 
nearly black, short and globular to conical to oblong to spindle- 
shaped and extending into a long taproot that bears most of 
the feeding rootlets : stem stout, erect, 2-3 ft. high, long- 
branching in flower, usually falling when laden with fruit, 
striate or grooved, more or less glaucous, glabrous or bearing 
few scattered straight stiff colorless hairs : Ivs. very (variable 
in size, shape and division, all petiolate, sometimes smooth but 
usually with scattered sharp stiff colorless hairs on both 
surfaces, strongly veined ; radical ones 3-6 in. long and 1-2 in. 
broad, obovate or short-oblong in outline, usually lyrate- 
divided, the terminal part large and the lateral divisions be- 
coming very small along the petiole, the margins irregularly 
crenate or crenate-dentate ; cauline Ivs. large, mostly strongly 
lyrate-pinnatifid and long-petioled, terminal lobe very large 
and mostly rounded (sometimes acute!) and more or less shal- 
lowly lobed, the inferior divisions few or several, the upper 
Ivs. passing into lanceolate or linear undivided bracts in the 
inflorescence: flowers white to red-veined to lilac, slender- 
pedicelled, on long branches; petals 4, long-clawed, the oblong 
or obovate obtuse blade spreading usually at right angles in 
full anthesis; 4 narrow sepals about as long as the claws of 
the petals ; some or all of the 6 anthers exserted in the throat 
of the corolla, as is also the single style with its globular 
stigma : fruit an indehiscent spongy pod, 1 to 3 in. long 



176 



Boot Crops 



(Fig. 82), with a long bealv and 1 to 6 seeds in the thickened 
part : seeds brown, variable in size and shape, globular-angular, 
large ones about % in. long and weighing 8 to 10 mg., the small 
ones only about half as heavy ; longevity about 5 j'ears. — Prob- 
ably Asian, but known only as a cultigen (in cultivation and 
frequently escaped). Thought to be a development from R. 
Raphanistrtim, Linn., the charlock, a weedy plant with slender 
taproot, yellow flowers fading to white or violet, and slender 
furrowed pods with marked constrictions between the seeds : 
this plant is now widely spread, and is an introduced weed in 
North America. The radish is variable in the size, season, 
shape and color of its tuberous roots (the word radish is con- 
nected with the Latin radix, root), and botanical groups are 
usually defined in terms of these characters; better botanical 
characters, however, reside in the leaves and pods. There are 
marked groups in the pinnate division of the leaves, and one 
group in which the leaves are undivided. 

Var. longipinnatus, Bailey, Gent. Herb, i, 25. 1920. Plant 
large and stout : radical leaves elongated and narrow, some- 
times 2 ft. long, the leaflets 8 to 12 or more pairs : root large 
and long, usually a winter radish. — Apparently most of the 
oriental winter radishes belong here (Fig. S3). 

Yar. parviplnnatus, Bailey, I.e. Plant slender, with large 
root : leaves small, sometimes with very slender divisions and 
sometimes merely lobed : pod slender, nodose, with a very long 
beak. — India and Japan; apparently not cult, in this country 
(Figs. 84, 85). 

Var. nonpinnatus, Bailey, I.e. Leaves entire, the radical 
ones obovate and on the stem oval or oblong, the margins entire 
or obscurely crenate-dentate. — China, not recognized in this 
country (Fig. 86). 

Var. caudatus, Alef. Landw. Fl. 258. 1868. (R. caudatus, 
Linn. Mant. i, 95. 1767.) Rat-tailed Radish. Pods rather 
than root greatly developed, sometimes more than 1 ft. long, 
curved and sometimes twisted (Fig. 87). — The young pods are 
the edible parts, sometimes pickled and sometimes eaten raw 



The Turnips 



177 



as are radishes. Only now and then grown in this country, as 
a curiosity. 

TURNIP AND RUTABAGA 
The turnips of all Mnds are cool-season crops of quich 
germination and rapid growth. Tliey are partial-season 
plants, usually following early crops. They grow long 
after tomatoes, corn and many other crops are Tcilled hy 
frost. Seeds are usually sown where the plants are to 
stand. The soil should he loose and fertile. 

For garden use, particularly for the early season, turnips 
are sown in drills 10 to 18 inches apart. In drills, 1 ounce of 
seed may be used for every 200 to 300 feet, or 1 pound to the 
acre; broadcast, 2 to 3 pounds to the acre. The plants should 
be thinned to stand at first 3 inches apart ; and then, as some 
of the young roots are removed for eating, until the main crop 
allows a foot of space for the development of each full-sized 
tuber. The late or fall crop is often sown broadcast, particu- 
larly if it is to be used for stock-feeding. Better results are 
secured, however, when the plants are grown in rows. For 
general field purposes, the rows are placed 18 to 30 inches 
apart, to allow of wheel-hoe or even horse-hoe tillage. Seeds 
are sown % to % inch deep. Yields run from 600 to 1000 
bushels to the acre. 

The diseases of these plants are black-rot and club-root ; in 
insects the turnip aphis may be troublesome: see the discus- 
sions for Cabbage, page 71. Flea-beetles often infest turnips 
and rutabagas : see the account of this insect on page 435. 

The true or "flat" 
turnips usually have 
flattened or very oblate 

roots, soft white flesh, °' small-pinnate radish (X V.). 

and green rough leaves. They do not require the full 
season in which to mature, and are therefore grown as a 




178 



Root Crops 



spring or autumn crop. The herbage is very hardy, with- 
standing considerable frost without injury. They are grown 
somewhat for stock feed, but not so largely as the ruta- 
baga ; only the vege- 
table-garden use of 
them is intended in 
this writing. 




6. L e a f of 

simple-leaved 
o r non-pin- 
n a t e radish 
(X Vi). 




Pods of ral- 



lied radish, Var. caudatus 
(X 1/3). 



For early use, 
turnips are sown as 
soon as the land 
can be prepared in 
spring. They should give roots large enough for the table 
in six to ten weeks. For the fall crop, seeds may be sown 
in the Northern States as late as the last week in July, 
and in the Central States as late as the middle of August. 
The plants will grow until heavy freezing weather, at 
which time they may be pulled and stored as are other 
roots. The roots will not stand hard freezinsf. 



The Turnips 



179 




Seeds of turnip 
(X 8). 



The value of the turnip as an article of food lies very 
largely in its tenderness and succulence. If the plant 
grows slowly, it is woody, stringy and bitter. To secure a 
quick growth, the land should be rich 
and moist, and in fine tilth. If the 
plants are raised in broadcast seeding, 
the land should be in excellent condi- 
tion and free from weeds, as no sub- 
sequent tillage is possible. 
The turnip is one of the easiest plants to grow, except 
that it is often seriously attacked by the root-maggot. 
This pest can be kept in check by injecting bisulfide of 
carbon into the ground about the plants, but this labor is 
usually more than the turnips are worth. It is better, 
therefore, to grow turnips on land that has not been in- 
fested ; or, if there is no such land on the premises, it is ad- 
visable not to grow turnips until the insects are starved out. 

Early turnips are sold in bunches, like early beets, the 
tops usually re- 
moved. The main 
crop is sold by the 
bushel or the barrel. 
Eoots are stored 
for winter like po- 
tatoes. 

Standard varie- 
ties of turnip are Milan, Snowball, Strapleaf Flat Dutch. 
Eigs. 88, 89, 90 show the turnip. 

Rutabaga 

The requirements for the rutabaga are the same as for 
turnips, except that the plants require a month to six 




Seedlings of turnip (X %)• 



180 



Root Crops 



Aveeks' longer time in which to mature. It is not raised as 
a spring vegetable. 

Eutabaga differs from the turnip in having a denser and 
mostly yelloT^^-fleshed root, which is rounded or elongated 
and not distinctly flat, the leaves glaucous-blue and not 
hairy, the crown long and leafy, 
the roots arising from the under 
side of the tuber as well as from 






Characteristic form of flat 

turnip (X li). Rutabaga (X 1/5). 

96. Forms of turnip and rutabaga. 

the taproot. Compare the roots in Tig. 90. It is a richer 
vegetal)le than the turnip. It is grown either as a spring 
or autumn crop. As in the case of the turnip, the product 
grown for stock is raised from summer-sown seeds. For 
the main crop, the seeds are usually sown as early as the 
first of July or the middle part of June in the Xorthern 
States. 



The Horse-radish 



181 



For the botanical account of turnips and rutabagas, see the 
discussion of brassicaceous plants in Chapter IV (pages 95, 9G). 

HORSE-RADISH 
Horse-radish is a 'perennial grown commercially as an 
annual, propagated by root-cuttings (sets). It is perfectly 
hardy. Groion usually as a coml)ination-crop and succes- 
sion-crop, occupying the land completely late in the season, 
when it rnakes its principal growth. It requires a very 
deep and fertile soil. The grated or shredded root is used 
as a piquant sauce and relish. 

Cuttings of the side roots are employed for propagation 
directly in the field, and the plants stand 10 to 18 in., more 
or less, in ro^ys far enough apart for good tillage, which is 
usually 3 to 4 ft. if the plants are started between other crops. 
The commercial yields are 3 to 5 tons to the acre, varying less 
or more. 

Horse-radish FLEA-BEETLE (Phijllotreta armoraciw) . — A 
black strongly convex flea-beetle about % In. long, having 
each wing-cover yellowish except a narrow black stripe along 
the outer margin and a wider one on the inner margin. The 
eggs are laid in clusters on the petioles of the young leaves. 
The larvjB burrow in the petioles. The beetles are more de- 
structive early in the season and the larvse later. Control: 
Spray the plants with bordeaux mixture containing 4 to 6 lbs. 
arsenate of lead (paste) in .50 gals. Several applications may 
be necessary. Change the location of the beds from time to 
time in order to avoid the beetles. 

Spinach aphis {Myzus persicw). — See under Spinach. 

Harlequin cabbage bug (Murgantia histrionica) . — See under 
Cabbage. 

Sharp distinction is to be made between the home-grown 
supply of horse-radish and the commercially-raised product. 
It is the same plant ; but in the home premises it is usually 



182 



Root Crops 



allowed to persist year after year, often as a weedy plant, 
and is dug in spring as wanted. It is customary to plant 
the old crowns, and sprawling crooked roots are the re- 
sult. These roots are good enough for home use, 
but they would not sell on the market. For com- 
mercial purposes, a clean straight shapely root is 
desired (Fig. 91) ; and to obtain this ^ ^ 



root, careful propagation, good land ^ |ii 
and thorough tillage are essential. In 
some parts of the country the growing of 
horse-radish is an important industry. 

As a commercial crop, horse-radish is 
grown as an annual, being propagated 
from cuttings of the small side roots. 
These cuttings are made from the trim- 
mings when the roots are dressed for 
market in autumn. A good cutting 
should be the size of a lead pencil up 

A good ^^^^^ ^^^'^ ^^^^^ 92 

, root of It is usually made 5 to 8 inches long, and Horse- 
radish the lower end is cut slanting to desig- sets 
(X 1/6). ^^^^ ^j^^ right end up when planting 
(Fig. 93). These cuttings or sets are tied in bundles and 
stored in the cellar or pit, as are other roots. 

Sets may be planted at the first opening of spring, but 
since the plant makes the larger part of its growth late in 
the season, it is customary to hold them rather late and to 
plant them with some other crop. They are often planted 
in the rows of early cabbages or beets. When the cabbages 
are off, the horse-radish takes the land. The sets are 
dropped right end up in furrows or holes, which are made 



Tlie Horse-radish 



183 



"^ith a strong-pointed stick or crowbar or a clibber. They 
are usually placed in a somewhat slanting position^ al- 
though the upright position is probably as good. The top 
of the cutting usually stands 3 to 5 inches below the top of 
the soil. This deep planting delays the appearing of the 
plants and thus prevents interfer- 
ence with the combination-crop. The 
rows are far enough apart to allow 
of horse tillage, and the plants 
should stand 10 to 16 or IS inches 
in the row. 

The plant will stand much abuse. 
If it grows so rapidly as to inter- 
fere with the cabbages or other 
plants with which it is planted, the 
tops may be cut off two or three 
times early in the season. After the 
other crop is removed, the land is 
given good surface tillage. 

Sometimes horse-radish is made 
the main crop, and other crops are Result of cutting set 

^ " ^ ^ ^ ■wrong end up. 

grown incidentally. In this case, it 

is planted in rows 3 to -i feet apart on ridges, and spinach, 
early beets or lettuce are grown on the sides of the ridges. 
The crop will grow until freezing weather. 

It is Ijest to plow out the roots in autumn and to store 
or sell them. As horse-radish is likely to become a bad 
weed, it is necessary that all the small roots be taken out 
of the land. TThen the crop is harvested, therefore, all 
the loose roots are picked from the furrow and destroyed. 
If these furrows are left open until spring many more of 




184 



Root Crops 



the roots will be exposed, and they may then be removed. 
Subsequent plowing and dragging will often expose still 
others. It is usually impossible to get all the roots out of 
the land, but if the ground is occupied with other crops 
and is kept in good tillage, the 
horse-radish should not become a 
nuisance. 

The roots are washed and 
trimmed before they are sent to 
market. For special trade, the 
roots may be tied in bunches of 
6 or 8, but the crop is generally 
marketed in barrels or in bulk. 
As the roots must be grated (Fig. 
94) before they are used, it is 
necessary that they be long, sym- 
metrical, uniform and as large as 
possible in order to fit the grat- 
ing machines. Small and branchy 
horse-radish can scarcely be sold 
at any price. From 3 to 5 tons 
(or more) should be raised on an 
acre, the latter quantity when the 
ground is deep and rich and 
when the plants do not suffer for moisture. 




94. Two kinds of hand- 
power horse-radish 
graters. 



The Horse-Radish Plant 

Armoracia. Crucifercr. A few species of herbs in Europe 
and Asia. The horse-radish has an involved synonomy. due 
(1) to different interpretations of generic limits, as to whether 
it should go in one genu? or another; (2) to the nomencla- 



Botany of the Eorse-racJish 



185 



ture tangle in which the former genus Xasturtinm is involved. 
For botanical and nomenclatorial reasons, it is here sepa- 
rated in the genus Armoracia. The plant has no immediate 
relation to the radish ; and the word liorse was probably 
originally used in this connection in the sense of " coarse " 
or " large." 

A. rusticana, Gfertn. Mey. & Scherb. Fl. Wett. ii. 426. 1800. 
(Cochlearia Armoracia, Linn. Sp. PI. 648. yasturtiinn Armo- 
racia, Fries, Fl. Scan. 65. 1835. Roripa Armoracia, Hitch. 
Spring FL Manhattan, Kans. 18. 1894. Radicula Armoracia, 
Robinson. Rhodora, x. 32. 1908.) Horse-Radish. Stout 
glabrous perennial with dock-like leaves : root branching, long, 
hard and deep : lower leaves of two kinds, mostly oblong or 
oblong-ovate and undivided, long-petioled, margins crenate- 
dentate, but sometimes lobed or even pectinate lioth from the 
root and on the lower part of the stem ; main and upper stem 
leaves mostly sessile or tapering to a petiole-like base : stem 
erect, 18 to 36 in. high, branched above: flowers white. % in. 
or more across, in panicled racemes, the petals obovate : pods 
(sometimes not forming) ovoid to short-oblong, Yg in. or more 
long, slender-pedicelled, with very short style and large stigma, 
2-celled with seeds in 2 marginal rows in each cell : seeds 
seldom maturing, never sought for propagating the cutivated 
plant, cordate-orbicular. — Southeastern Europe, by some writers 
thought to be possibly a form of another species ; in this coun- 
try it has run wild in moist land and along ditches, where its 
abundant white flowers are conspicuous in late spring. (The 
word Armoracia is an old substantive in Latin — from the 
Greek — designating the horse-radish.) 

CARROT 

Yery dean and melJow land, particularly soil that irill 
'not ''hake'' over the seeds, and close attention to smiarr 
tillage, are requisites for the culture of carrots. Seeds are 
slow to germinate a.nd they are sown luhere the plants are 
to groiv. The crop is half-hardy. It is easy to grow after 



186 



Root Crops 



the plants are well established. It is mostly a succession- 
crop. 

Carrots are sown in drills from 10 to IS inches apart, de- 
pending largely on the variety and the roethod to be employed 
in tilling. The early crop is thinned to 4 or 5 inches in the 
row, and the late large varieties to about 6 or 8 inches. Rows 
are 10 .to 16 inches apart, or twice this distance for horse till- 
age. If it is not desired to plant the late varieties for autumn 
use, one may choose the early varieties for that purpose, sowing 
the seed late in July or even the first of August. Unless the 
soil is in very fine tilth and moist, however, it is difficult to 
secure a stand as late in the season as this. Carrot seed 
should always be sown thickly to allow for any failure in 
germination. It is sown about or % inch deep. For an acre, 
2 to 3 lbs. of seed are required ; for 300 feet of drill, 1 oz., 
if the seed is fresh. Good crops run 200 to 400 bu. to the 
acre, and -in special cases more than this if the very large 
kinds are grown. 

Storage eot {Sclerotinia libertiana) . — Frequently carrots in 
storage show a soft rot over which there later appear white 
felts of mycelium containing hard black fungous bodies. These 
black bodies or sclerotia serve largely to carry the fungus over 
winter. Control: Carrots should not be grown on land in- 
fested with the organism. The removal of affected plants in 
a field is desirable to eradicate the fungus. Thorough drying 
of the roots in the field, careful sorting out of decaying car- 
rots, and storage under cool dry conditions are important. 

Carrot rust-fly (Psila roscc). — A slender straw-colored mag- 
got, t'V in. long when mature, that burrows in the root of 
carrots. Fortunately in this country serious attack is not 
likely to continue in the same locality for more than one or 
two seasons in succession. No satisfactory control is known. 

Carrot beetle (Ligyrus giltlfosus). — A reddish brown beetle 
resembling a June beetle, about 1/2 in. long, that feeds mostly 
underground, gnawing out holes in the roots and underground 
stems. Control: Clean farming and a short rotation of crops. 



The Carrot 



187 



Carrots are grown for liumaiL food and also for live- 
stock. In the former utilization^ which is the only part of 
the subject nnder consideration here, there are two lead- 
ing types: those grown for spring or 
early snnimer nse, and those grown as 
a main crop and nsed in the winter. 
The main-season carrots are not culti- 
vated very extensively as a vegetable- 
gardening crop. Young fresh carrots 
may be shipped from the Southern 
that there is relatively little need of 
The carrot does well as a 




95. Fruits ("seeds") of 
carrot (X o). 



States so cheaply 
storing the roots for market, 
hotbed crop. 

Light quick fertile land is essential for the growing of 
tender sweet carrots. In such lands the germination is 
also more certain and uniform. The carrot is a fairly 
hardy plant, and the early varieties may be sown as soon 
as the land is fit in the 
spring. The late varieties 
may be sown as late as 
the middle of June in the 
Northern States. Carrots 
mature rather slowly, and 
even the early varieties re- 
quire 2 to 2% months to 
bring them to edible size, 
unless they are aided in their 
growth by a covering of sash. On land to be used for late 
carrots, it is well to sow some early stuff in spring, as 
radishes, and to keep the ground clean until it is needed 
for the carrots. The early weeds will then be killed, and 




Seedlings of carrot (X %)• 



188 



Pioot Crops 



the young carrot plants will have an opportunity to grow. 
Special care must be taken to keep down weeds. In their 
early stages, carrot plants are shallow- 
rooted and delicate, and the tillage 
should be very careful. A late crop may 
follow early carrots, and an early crop 
may precede the late ones. 

The seeds of carrots are small (Fig. 
95) and germinate slowly (Fig. 96). 
Unless the soil is in good condition and 
free of w^eds the young plants are likely 
to suffer. It is well to sow seeds of 
radishes, turnips or other quick-germi- 
nating things with the carrots to mark 
the row and to break the crust. 

The carrot is annual and biennial. 
The early varieties send up flower-stalks 
the same 3'ear if left in the ground; but 
the roots of the late varieties must be 
stored in winter, and set out the fol- 
lowing s])ring, when they will quickly 
run to seed. 

The early short and half-long carrots 
are marketed in small bunches, with the 
tops on. The main crop is sent to mar- 
ket in crates and barrels. 

Varieties of carrots are either yellow-fleshed or white- 
fleshed. They are also of several forms. The stump- 
rooted or half -long varieties (Fig. 97) are popular for 
garden work. These are early or mid-season varieties fit 
for using either early in the season or late in summer. The 




97. Half- long carrot, 
for table use (X 1/3). 



The Carrot 



189 



Early Forcing (or similar varieties) is one of the best for 
growing in hotbeds or colclframes, or in autumn for home 
use. The Half-long Danvers is one of the reliable mid- 
season varieties. For late or main-season crop, the Long 
Scarlet is excellent ; and for stock-feeding the Long Orange 
and Long White or Belgian are used. These latter types 
are also good for home use, although when they are allowed 
to reach their full size they are likely to be somewhat coarse 
in texture. 

The Carrot Plant 

Daucus. UmhelUferw. About 60 species in many parts of 
the world, including several native in North America, very few 
known to cultivation. 

D. Carota, Linn., var. sativa, DC. Prodr. iv, 211. 1830. Cul- 
tivated Carrot. More or less hairy annual and biennial, with 
fern-like foliage : taproot single, much thickened and forming 
the carrot of gardens: leaves sparsely bristly -hairy, mostly 
long-stalked, the base of the petiole expanded ; blade pinnately 
decompound, the many ultimate segments nearly linear and 
acute: stem erect, 2 -to 3 ft., bristly-hairy, grooved, much 
branched, bearing showy compound many-rayed umbels on 
the ends of long branches, the involucre bracts leaf-like and 
cleft into linear divisions : flowers small and numerous, in 
globular umbellets, the whole umbel more or less globular, 
the outer flowers with unequal petals and usually on longer 
pedicels or rays; petals 5, obovate and obtuse or emargi- 
nate; anthers exserted ; style short and stout: fruit ("seed") 
one of the two separable carpels, oblong, about % in. long, 
convex on the back and bearing 3 ridges and intermediate 
spiny or wavy -ribs, flat and 2-ribbed on the front or face, 
crowned with the short style-beak (which may be broken 
off in commercial seeds), weighing 1 to 2 mg. ; longevity 4 
or 5 years. — Cultigen ; derived from the wild carrot (D. 
Carota, which is native in Europe, N. Africa and Asia, and 



190 



Boot Crops 



introduced and extensively spread in North America. There 
are apparently points of difference between the domesticated 
and wild plant aside from the thickened root of the former. 
The flower-head of the garden carrot is likely to be globular, 
as are also the umbellets, rather than flat or saucer-form, as 
in the wild plant. The foliage, particularly in virgin plants, 
seems to have peculiarities between the two. (The word 
Carota is Latin for carrot, and from which the English word 
is derived.) 

PARSNIP 

A cool very deep rich open soil and one that does not 
" t)a}ce " over the seeds and a full-length season are requi- 
sites for parsnip-growing. Seeds are sown where the crop 
is to stand. Tlie plant is liardy. 

The seeds of parsnips germinate slowly, and retain their 
vitality only a year or two ; therefore they should be sown 
thickly. Seeds are usually sown in drills far enough apart to 
allow of wheel-hoe or horse tillage, and the young plants are 
thinned to stand about 6 to 8 in. in the row. In gardens, 
the rows may be 14 to 18 in. apart ; in field culture with 
horse tillage, 24 to 30 in. The seed is covered % in. to 1 in. 
with earth. One ounce of fresh seed is used to 200 to 2.50 
feet of drill ; 4 to 6 lbs. are generally sown to the acre. A good 
crop is .500 to 600 bushels to the acre, but more than this is 
obtained under the best conditions. 

There are no menacing diseases of parsnips, and the insects 
are mostly those of carrots (which see). The larvae of the 
black swallow-tail butterfly sometimes attack parsnips; see 
under Celery ; also carrot rust-fly and beetle. 

Paesxip webwoem (Depressaria Tiey^acliana) . — Small green- 
ish yellow caterpillars, that web together and devour the 
unfolding blossom-heads of parsnip and celery, greatly de- 
creasing the seed crop. The parent moths hibernate under 
flakes of bark, and on emerging deposit their eggs on the 



The Parsnip 



191 



plant near the flower-heacls. Control: Spray or dust the 
flower-heads with arsenate of lead after thej' have opened. So 
doing will kill many of the caterpillars. 

The parsnip occupies the land the entire season. The 
seeds are sown in spring as early as the ground is fit.. As 
they germinate slowly, it is well to plant radishes or other 
quick-growing seeds with 
them to break the ground 
and mark the row; of 
course these other plants 
must be quickly removed, 
and this may not be prac- 
ticable in a large area. 
The crop is sometimes 
grown for live-stock. 

The plant makes a 
long-cylindrical tapering 
root (Fig. 98) : therefore 
the ground should be 
deep. Much of the value 
of the parsnip as a mar- 
ket crop is destroyed 
when the roots are 
branchy and forking. 
Land that is shallow and 
lumpy tends to make 
such roots. Good pars- 
nip roots should be 1 
foot long, and straight, clean and comely. 

Parsnips are rarely sold before the end of the season. 
They are sent to market in crates, boxes and barrels. They 




Parsnip (X 1/6). 



192 



Boot Crops 



are stored in the same way as beets and turnips — in bins 
in the cellar, and in pits. 

The roots may be harvested in antumn and stored in the 

cellar or in pits, or they may 
be left in the ground until 
spring. The hard freezing of 
winter does not injure them. 
In fact, many persons think 
that the quality of the roots 
99. Fruits ("seeds") of parsnip is improved by freezing. This 

notion is probably unfounded, 
for if the roots are not allowed to shrivel in winter, their 
quality is as apparently good as when allowed to remain in 
the ground. If one 
is growing parsnips 
for the market, it 
is important that at 
least a large part of 

the crop be stored plants or seedlings of parsnip (X %). 

for the winter, for the highest prices are usually obtained 
before the roots can be dug from the field in spring. 

There are few varieties of parsnip. Hollow-crown and 
Student (or Guernsey) are best known. Seeds and young 
plants are seen in Tigs. 99, 100. 

The Parsnip Plant 

Pastinaca. r)ulicllifcra\ A dozen or so European and 
Asian species, biennial and perennial. 

P. sativa, Linn. Sp. PI. 262. Cultivated Paesjs^ip. Tall 
stout mostly glabrous strong-scented biennial (rarely annual) : 
taproot single and enlarged to form the parsnip of gardens : 
leaves long and rather narrow, odd-pinnately compound, long- 





Parsnip and Celeriac 



193 



stalked with petioles expanded at base, leaflets ovate to 
oblong, sessile or short-stalked, more or less irregularly lobed, 
the margins toothed or cut : stem erect, strongly grooved 
and angled, 3 to 4 or 5 ft. high, branched: flowers greenish,, 
small, in compound umbels that are mostly devoid of invo- 
lucre and involucels ; umbels enlarging in fruit, the rays some- 
times 6 in. long; petals obovate, clawed, incurved; stamens 
exserted ; styles 2, spreading or recurved: fruit ("seed" of 
commerce) one of two closely appressed but separating car- 
pels, very thin, flat, oval, about i/4 in. long, w^ing-margined, 
strongly ribbed on the outside and less so on the inner face, 
weighing 2 to 5 mg., holding germinating power only a year 
or two. — Europe and Asia ; in var. sylrestris, DC, extensively 
spread in this country as an introduced weed. 

CELERIAC 

The celeriac, or turnip-rooted celery, has a short, 
thick, tuberous 
crown-base, from 
w h i c h many 
roots arise. This 
tuber is the 
edible part, be- 
ing used either 
as salad or 
a cooked vege- 
table (Fig. 101). 
It has the celery 
flavor. The 
plant is dwarf; 
it requires no 
blanching, being 
generally growm only for the root. Sometimes the seeds are 
sown where the plant is to grow, but as they are as slow to 




101. Celeriac, trimmed root and leaf (X V^)- 



194 



Root Crops 



germinate as those of celery it is advisable to start in a 
seed-bed and transplant. The plants are allowed 6 or 8 
inches in the row, and the rows may stand at 12 to 20 
inches. The roots may be stored in winter as are other 
roots. 

For a botanical account of celeriac, see page 139. 



TURNIP-ROOTED or TUBEROUS CHERVIL 




102. Skirret fruits, or 
"seeds" (X 6). See 
page 195. 



The chervil is a small-rooted plant, 
carrot and of similar 
utility, but that the 
roots are gray or 
nearly black and of 
different flavor. The 
roots, which are 4 or 
5 inches long, mature 
in 4 to 6 months after 
germination. The seed does not germi- 
nate well if kept dry over winter. It is 
therefore sown in August or September, 
although it usually does not germinate 
until spring ; or the seed may be stratified 
when ripe and thus kept for spring sow- 
ing. Otherwise the culture is like that for 
carrot. It matures in early summer, but 
improves by remaining in the ground. It 
is little known in America. Apparently 
the seed of salad chervil (page 124) is 
sometimes sold for this plant. 



something like 




Tuberous or turnip-rooted chervil is Chaerophyllum bulbo- 
sum, Linn. Sp. PI. 258, native in Europe. It is an upright 



Gliervil and Skirret 



195 



branching more or less hairy biennial, 2 to 3 ft. tall, with 
ternately decompound leaves, the ultimate segments being 
linear rather than ovate or fernlike, as in salad chervil 
(Anthriscus Cerefolium), producing underground spindle- 
shaped tubers 2 to 4 in. long: fruit ("seed") nearly linear, 
about i/i in. long and more or less curved, not long-tapering as 
in the anthriscus, plane and unmarked on the front, convex 
on the back and with 4 dark-colored furrows on the back and 
sides, weighing 2 mg. 

SKIRRET 

Seeds of skirret (Fig. 102) are sometimes offered by 
American seedsmen, but the plant 
is little known in this country. It 
is raised for the thick but small 
prongy clustered roots, which are 
used in the same way as salsify and 
parsnip. The plant is perennial 
(but commonly treated as annual) 
and roots may be left in the ground 
over winter, being harvested as 
wanted. If seeds are sown in spring, 
good roots should be had in autumn. 
Sometimes the small roots and side 
prongs are used for propagation, the 
same as seeds. The plants are 
usually spaced 6 to 8_ inches in the 
row and the rows may be 12 to 15 
inches. 

Skirret is Sium Sisarum, Linn., 
native in Asia, one of the Umbelli- 
ferae or Parsley family. The plant 
grows 1 to 3 feet tall, with odd-pinnate leaves and one to 
three pairs of lanceolate pointed toothed leaflets; flowers 




104. Seeds (properly fruits) 
of salsify, the one at the 
left with the beak and 
pappus remaining (X 1^^). 



196 



Root Crops 



small, white, in terminal compound involucrate and in- 
volucellate umbels; fruits ("seeds") more or less curved, 
the ribs usually 3 on the back and 1 on either edge 
(Fig. 102). 

SALSIFY 

Deep rich cool soil and the full-length season are re- 
quired for the production of good salsify. It is not trans- 
planted. Hardy and easily grown. 

The large seed is sown about 1 in. deep in drills or rows 
12 in. apart for garden culture and sometimes 18 in. for field 
culture, and the plants are thinned to stand 3 to 5 in. apart. 
An ounce of seed sows about 70 feet of drill; 8 to 10 lbs. 
to the acre. A good yield is 200 to 300 bu. to the acre. 

No serious diseases or insects are reported on salsify. 



The salsify plant is grown for cooking only, not for 
live-stock. It has been comparatively little improved by 
domestication. There is a relatively large-rooted form 

known as the Mammoth 
Sandwich Island, and 
another called the Im- 
proved French. Even of 
the largest varieties, the 
roots are small, rarely 
more than 2 inches in 
diameter at the crown 
(Fig. 103). Because of 
its flavor of oysters, it is 
commonly known as the 
oyster plant or vegetable oyster. 

The seed (Fig. 104) is sown in drills as soon as the 




105. Seedlings of salsify (X %)• 



Tlie Salsify 



197 



ground is ready in spring and the young plants (Fig. 105) 
thinned as they stand. The plant is perfectly hardy and 
the roots may be left in the ground over winter, as they are 
not injured by frost. If one desires to use the plant in 
winter, however, or wishes to find the best markets, a large 
part of the roots should be stored in the cellar or in pits. 
The seeds germinate readily; they are long and stick-like, 
and are rather difficult to sow with the seed-drill. 

Sometimes salsify is bunched in autumn, but usually it 
is sent to market in crates or other receptacles. 

The Salsify Plant 

Tragopogon. Compositrp. Between 30 and 40 species of 
annual, biennial and perennial herbs, in Europe and Asia. 

T. porrifolius. Linn. Sp. PI. 7S9. Salsify. Oyster Plant. 
Vegetable Oyster. Stout erect glabrous biennial, with milky 
juice, the slender thickened long taproot constituting the sal- 
sify of gardens : leaves many, alternate, grass-like or garlic- 
like {porrifolius means "leak-leaved"), % in. and less wide 
near the base, very long and long-pointed, the base broad 
and clasping, margins entire: stem 3 to 4 ft. tall, usually 
forked : heads solitary and showy, 2 to 3 in. across when 
expanded, terminal on long naked branches or peduncles 
that are enlarged and fistulose at the summit, the involucre 
of many linear acuminate green bracts (in a single series) 
that equal or exceed the purple rays, flowers closing at mid- 
day : flowers many in the head, all perfect and ligulate. the 
rays 5-toothed: fruit 1 to l^o in. long, comprising the ripened 
carpel and a slender beak or stalk of greater length, the 
outer fruits in the head having upwardly serrate lines and the 
slenderer inner ones nearly or quite destitute of them ; on 
the beak is borne the tuft of soft plumose pappus : the 
" seed " of commerce is the stick-like brown or gray fruit 
from which the pappus and more or less of the beak have 
been broken, ranging about ^ to % in. long, angular, grooved 



198 



Root Crops 



and roughened, tapering above into ttie beak, the pieces weigh- 
ing 10 to 25 mg. ; longevity about 2 to 3 years. — Mediter- 
ranean region ; an introduced weed in North America and 
other countries, along roadsides and in waste places, in such 
cases not producing the thickened roots of the cultivated plant. 

SCORZONERA or BLACK SALSIFY 
The cultivation of this plant is in all ways like that of 

salsify, except that it should be given much more room. 

It is perennial, however, and the roots continue to enlarge 

without becoming inedible if left in the ground for more 

than one year. 

It has a long black root, yellow flowers, light-colored 

seeds, and broader leaves than salsify. It is used in the 

same way as salsify. The plant is little known in North 

America (Figs. 106, 107). 

Black salsify is Scorzonera hispanica, Linn. Sp. PI. 791, 

of the Compositcc, closely related to Tragopogon. It is per- 
ennial, with milky juice, bearing many slightly pubescent 
keeled leaves 12 to 18 in. long, the mid-blade 1% in. wide, 
lanceolate and tapering gradually into a long sharp point and 
below into a long-winged petiole : taproot thickened like that 
of salsify : stem erect, 2 ft. or more, the leaves with clasping 
bases : heads single, terminal, the involucre bracts in two or 
more series and not leafy, the flowers yellow : fruit nearly 
white, angular, grooved, the inner ones in the head smooth 
and the outer ones slightly serrate, bearing a long beak and 
tuft of pappus ; the commercial " seeds " lack the beak and 
pappus, the former disarticulating, the remaining part 14 to 
% in. long and weighing 10 to 15 mg. — Central and southern 
Europe. 

SCOLYMUS OR SPANISH SALSIFY 
This plant is cultivated like salsify, and the roots are 
used for the same purposes. It makes a root much like 



ScotymiiS 



199 



salsify, except that it is lighter colored and considerably 
longer. Its flavor is less pronounced, but when carefully 
cooked it possesses a very agreeable quality somewhat in- 
termediate between that of the salsify and parsnip. It is 
adapted to all the methods of cooking employed for those 
vegetables. The particular value 
of the vegetable, aside from 
affording a variety in the kitchen- 
garden, is its large size and pro- 
ductiveness as compared with the 





106. Black salsify or 
scorzonera (X 1/3). 



107. Young plants of scorzonera (X %)• 

salsify. Almost twice the crop 
can be grown on a given area. 
The seeds are much easier to 
handle and sow than those of the 
salsify. It can be dug either in 
the fall or spring. Perhaps the greatest disadvantage of 
the plant is the very prickly leaves, which may make it 
unpleasant to handle. It is worth more attention in Amer- 
ican gardens, but it may not survive the winter at the 
North and produce seed, although edible roots are made 
the first year. The plant is sometimes called golden thistle. 

The Spanish salsify belongs in the Compositfie, being one of 
the three species of Scolymus, S. hispanicus, Linn. Sp. PI. 



200 



Boot Crops 



813, native in central Europe. It is a very spiny thistle-like 
biennial with milky juice and long piunatifid shiny hairy 
green leaves that have lighter colored ribs and veins : root 
single or branched : stems 1 to 2 ft. or more high, spreading, 
bearing many stiff spine-tipped clasping and decurrent leaves: 
flowers yellow, in sessile axillary heads: fruits (seeds) chaff- 
like, wing-margined, variable in size, the larger ones (from 
the outside of the head) 14 in. or more long and circular- 
oblong. (Hispanicus : Spanish.) 



CHAPTER YIII 



THE POTATO CROPS 
Potato Sweet potato 

The potato crops are major horticultural products re- 
quiring not only choice and preparation of land hut fore- 
thought in the arrangement of rotations and in the assem.- 
hling of equipment and supplies. They are heavy products 
and require the use of good machinery and vehicles. The 
grower must prepare for the supply of lahor, horse or other 
power, manures and fertilizers, good seed, insecticides, 
fungicides and sprayers, graders and handling conveni- 
ences, and must looh long in advance into the transporta- 
tion and market facilities. The outlay for groiving heavy 
crops on any important scale — which is the only profitable 
way — is so considerable that the man should he ready and 
well prepared at th e start. The potatoes are " money 
crops," and are likely to consume a large proportion of the 
man's time and plan. 

The potato crops are two, the common or Irish potato, 
and the sweet potato. The former is staple in the North 
and the latter in the South. The two are so unlike in cul- 
tural requirements that it is not expedient to endeavor to 
state principles that apply to both.- Yet they are usu- 
ally associated in the public mind and may be brought 
together for comparison if not for agreement. What is 

(201) 



202 



The Potato Crops 



known as potato " in the South is the batatas or sweet 
potato ; in the North it is solannm (Irish or round potato). 
Potatoes are tuber crops grown underground, and similar 
types of tools are required as well as good knowledge of 
the heavy handling of land. 

POTATO 

Deeply pulverized cool soil holding much capillary mois- 
ture and rich in potash, carefully chosen seed tubers that 
are also free from disease, deep and early planting, level 
culture, frequent surface tillage to conserve moisture, care- 
ful and persistent attention to the many diseases and in- 
sects: these are requisites of the best potato culture. The 
potato is propagated by divisions or cuttings of tubers. It 
thrives best in a relatively cool climate: in the South, it is 
successful only as an autumn to spring crop, for the mid- 
summer season is too continuously hot. The potato is not 
tender to light frosts. 

Potatoes are planted in drills or continuous furrows, 3 to 
3% feet apart. Single pieces of tubers are dropped at inter- 
vals of 12 to 18 inches. If the pieces are cut to one strong eye 
and dropped at above distances, 8 to 10 bushels are required 
to plant an acre. PTgually the pieces are cut to bear about two 
good eyes or buds. Many planters use too little seed. The 
" seed " is covered 3 to 5 inches deep, the latter depth only in 
light or loose soil. The yield of potatoes averages about 75 
bushels to the acre, but with forethought and good tillage and 
some fertilizer, the yield should run from 200 to 300 bushels, 
and occasional yields much exceed the latter figure. In large- 
area operations potatoes are planted and harvested by machin- 
ery, or by specially made plows. There are various devices for 
sorting and grading them. 

Late blight (Pytophthora infestans). — The appearance of 



White Potato 



203 



water-soaked areas on the leaves and in wet weather the occur- 
rence on their under surface of a white mildew are characteris- 
tic of late blight. The disease spreads rapidly, the blighted 
plants giving off a disagreeable odor. Irregular discolored 
lesions, which later become somewhat sunken, appear on the 
tubers. It is in these diseased tubers that the fungus lives 
over winter. Control: Spray with bordeaux mixture 5-5-50, 
beginning when plants are six inches high and repeating 
every ten days to two weeks throughout the season. Insecti- 
cides may be added directly to the bordeaux. Potatoes in 
blighted fields should not be dug until the vines are dead 
and dry. 

Early blight (Alternaria solani) . — Irregular dark brown 
spots that show concentric rings develop on the leaves, and 
premature death of the foliage may result. Control: Thor- 
ough spraying with bordeaux mixture 5-5-50 will afford con- 
trol. Applications should be begun early. 

Scab {Actinomyces cliromogcnus) . — The disease is due to 
a parasitic bacterium that attacks the skin of the potato 
tuber, causing rough corky areas. The organism not only over- 
winters on the tubers but also in the soil and manure. Cotv- 
trol: Uncut tubers should be soaked for 1% hours in a 
solution made by adding 4 ounces of powdered corrosive sub- 
limate to 30 gallons of water ; spread them out where they 
will dry quickly. It is important to use wooden containers 
for the solution, and tubers should preferably be treated before 
sprouts have developed to any great extent. 

Rhizoctonia {Rhizoctonia solani). — The most easily rec- 
ognized symptoms are black scurf on the surface of affected 
tubers, reddish brown cankers on young sprouts, dwarfing or 
rosetting of vines, and the production of numerous small ill- 
shapen potatoes. Control: The treatment of seed tubers with 
corrosive sublimate as recommended for potato scab is advis- 
able. Crop rotation is important. 

Black wart (Synchytrium endoMotica) . — Rough warty 
outgrowths are produced on the tubers, especially at the eyes, 
and may occur on other underground parts of the plant as 



204 



The Potato Crops 



well. The warts are at first brown, but later become black 
and show decay. The disease Is very destructive. Control: 
Report the disease promptly to the State experiment station 
and receive recommendation for control. 

Mosaic. — Affected leaves are frequently wrinkled and pre- 
sent a mottled appearance, light green or yellow areas alter- 
nating with the normal green of other parts of the leaf. Con- 
trol: Plant seed from mosaic-free fields. 

Leaf boll. — A rolling of the leaves, beginning with the lower 
ones, accompanied by a change in color to a pale green is 
characteristic of this disease. The development of the plant is 
checked and the yield is greatly reduced. Control: Seed tubers 
should be obtained from fields free from disease. 

Powdery scab {Spongospora suljterranea) . — In the early 
stages of this disease small blisters are formed on the skin 
of the tubers. Later these blisters rupture, exposing a dark 
powdery mass and appear as raised pustules surrounded by 
the torn skin of the potato. Control: The use of disease- 
free tubers, seed treatment and crop rotation are important. 

FusARiuM WILT (Fusariu/m oxysporium). — Rolling and wilt- 
ing of the leaves, together with yellowing of the foliage 
and premature death of the vines, are characteristic. Stems 
of affected plants show a blackening of the sap tubes. Con- 
trol: The planting of field-selected or certified seed is advis- 
able, and crop rotation is important. 

Blackleg {Bacillus pliytophthorus) . — This is a bacterial 
disease carried on the seed tubers. It may cause rot of the 
seed tuber and thus occasion an uneven stand. The stems of 
affected plants become black at the base. Diseased plants 
show lack of vigor and usually die without setting tubers, 
although they may become diseased after the tubers are 
formed. Control: Affected tubers should never be used for 
seed. Seed from disease-free fields should be employed and 
seed disinfection is advisable. 

Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemUneata) . — The 
adult is a convex black- and yellow-striped beetle about % in. 
long, which passes the winter in hibernation in the ground. 



White Potato 



205 



The elongate oval orange eggs are deposited In small masses 
on the underside of the leaves. The larvae, known as " slugs," 
are about % inch long, red, with the head, legs and two 
rows of spots on each side black. When mature, the larvae 
enter the ground and pupate. There are usually two broods 
annually. Control: Spray with paris green, 1 lb. in 50 gals, 
water to which 2 lbs. lime should be added to prevent burn- 
ing of the foliage. Paris green may be applied also in the 
form of a dust, 1 lb. in 20 lbs. air-slaked lime, or use arse- 
nate of lead (paste), 3 or 4 lbs. in 50 gals, water. It is best 
to apply the poison in bordeaux mixture except when it is 
not necessary to use this fungicide for the control of diseases. 
In the home garden the beetles may be hand-picked into a pan 
containing a little kerosene. This insect is the familiar "po- 
tato bug." 

Theee-lined-potato beetle {Lema trilineata) . — A yellow 
leaf-beetle, about % in. long, marked on the wing-covers with 
three black stripes. The eggs are laid in clusters on the 
underside of the leaves. The grubs are yellowish, with the 
head and legs black and about % in. long when full grown. 
Control: Spray with arsenicals as for the Colorado potato 
beetle. 

Potato aphis (Macrosiphum solanifoUi). — Plant-lice, some 
of which are green and others pink. They attack potatoes, 
causing the leaves to curl and turn brown; in some cases the 
death of the plants may result. Control: Spray with % pint 
" Black Leaf 40 " tobacco extract in 50 gals, bordeaux mix- 
ture. In case bordeaux mixture is not needed for the control 
of diseases, use the " Black Leaf 40 " in water, adding 3 or 4 
lbs. soap. The spraying should be done with great thorough- 
ness, using plenty of material, and care should be taken to 
hit the underside of the leaves. Begin early, before the plants 
become too badly infested. 

Apple leaf-hopper (Empoasca mail). — A small pale yel- 
lowish green leaf-hopper, % in. long, that sometimes attacks 
potatoes. The eggs are inserted into the tender parts of the 
potato plant and the nymphs feed on the underside of the 



206 



The Potato Crops 



leaves, which turn brown and the edges roll up and die. 
Control: Keep the foliage protected by thorough spraying with 
bordeaux mixture alone or in combination with arsenate of 
lead, taking care to hit both surfaces of the leaves. 

Potato stalk-weevil {Tricho'baris trinotata). — A bluish 
gray snout beetle. Vs ii^- ^ong, which lays its eggs on the stalks 
of potato. The larva is a grub, yellowish white, legless, i/4 iu- 
long when mature. Its presence is indicated by a wilting and 
dying of the leaves. Control: Practice clean farming and 
collect and burn the vines after harvesting the crop. Destroy 
all solanaceous weeds. 

Common stalk-borer {Papaipema nitela). — A caterpillar, 
l\i in. long when mature, that bores in the potato stalks in 
gardens of small patches ; not usually found in large com- 
mercial fields except along the edges. Until the last moult 
It is grayish brown with a white dorsal stripe and two white 
stripes on each side, the later stripes being broadly inter- 
rupted toward the front. The parent moths lay their eggs 
in the fall on the stems of such weeds as ragweed, pigweed 
and dock. The eggs hatch the following spring and the larvte 
at first attack weeds, migrating later to potato. Control: 
Clean cultivation and the destruction of weeds around the 
potato patch. 

Potato tuber moth (PhtJiorimaa opcrculella) . — A serious 
potato pest in Texas and California. The parent insect is a 
yellowish brown more or less spotted moth. The eggs are 
deposited in the field early in the spring. On hatching the 
larva enters the leaf, producing a blotched line and then 
bores down the petiole into the stalk, causing the branch 
to wilt. Reproduction is continuous throughout the season. 
Some of the caterpillars migrate from the stalks to the tubers 
and where the soil is loose the moths may lay eggs on the 
tubers. At digging time, if the tubers are left exposed in the 
field during the afternoon or night, the moths will lay eggs 
on them. The larvne burrow through the potatoes in all direc- 
tions, causing decay. In storage the insects continue to breed 
as long as the potatoes are in condition to serve as food. 



White Potato 



207 



Control: Injury to the vines is not serious. The greatest loss 
comes from infested tubers. Plant deep and keep the vines 
carefully hilled so as not to allow any of the tubers to become 
exposed. When harvesting, do not leave any of the potatoes 
exposed overnight. When potatoes are found infested in 
storage, fumigate with carbon bisulfide at the rate of 2 lbs. 
to 100 cu. ft. space, allowing the fumigation to continue for 
48 hours. Repeat at intervals of a week in summer or two 
weeks in winter. Do not plant potatoes after potatoes ; destroy 
all solanaceous weeds. 

Potato tlea-beetle {Epitrix cucumeris) . — A small black 
flea-beetle, ie in. long, that riddles the leaves with holes. 
Control: Keep the plants thoroughly covered with bordeaux 
mixture. When an arsenical is added for the control of the 
potato beetle many of the fliea-beetles are also killed. 

The potato is such an important article of food and 
commerce that much study has been given it and an ex- 
tensive literature has developed. To the books and bulle- 
tins the reader is referred if he intends to make anything 
like a specialty of the crop. Although potatoes will grow 
practically anywhere, within reason, yet real success in the 
cultivation of them is a question of good soil and location 
and of thoughtful experience. At this time only the 
simplest advice may be given ; and of course this book has 
in mind the vegetable-garden handling of the crop. 

The early potato crop, for market-gardening use, is se- 
cured by (1) choosing " early ^' soil and site; (2) by pre- 
paring the land the fall before, either by means of special 
plowing or by growing a late-tilled crop; (3) by using 
quickly available concentrated fertilizers; (4) by choos- 
ing early varieties; (5) by sprouting the potatoes in a 
warm place before planting (before the tubers are cut), 
allowing the sprouts to become 3 to 6 inches long. It is a 



208 



The Potato Crops 



widespread practice to raise the early crop from northern- 
grown seed stock. 

Land and tillage. 

The land should be loamy rather than heavy, well- 
drained, working np deep and mellow. The potato crop is 
good to follow sod and to prepare the land for other 
crops. Not only is the land well prepared for the crop 
and well tilled, but the digging amounts to another tilling 
and cleaning of the land. 

In most cases a heavy yield of potatoes is largely a ques- 
tion of moisture, as well as of fertility. If planted late, 
the crop loses the benefit of much of the winter precipita- 
tion. Planting on ridges or hills wastes the soil moisture 
in most cases. " Hilling up is often necessary, however, 
because the land is not deep enough to allow the tubers to 
grow well below the surface; and in market-garden 
operations the practice may conduce to earliness by expos- 
ing the soil more fully to sun heat. The ground should 
be such as to allow the tubers to be planted at least 
four inches beneath the level. If the potatoes are dropped 
in a deep furrow, the earth is plowed over them, and the 
surface may be harrowed two to three times before the 
plants are up, thus conserving moisture and destroying 
weeds. 

The land should be fertile, for the tonnage of the 
product is heavy. Raw heavy stable manure is usually 
avoided, or it may be applied on the sod the preceding au- 
tumn and plowed under. Well-rotted or old manure is 
often used. The potato responds specially well to commer- 
cial fertilizer, and brands rich in potash are preferred. 



WJiite Potato 



209 



The very heavy continuous yields of potatoes are largely a 
question of the proper soil. 

Five to eight light surface tillings are required during 
the season to save the moisture. Even after the vines have 
begun to spread and to cover the ground, tillage may be 
necessary in a dry year. 

Seeding. 

The size in which pieces of the seed tuber should be cut 
has been the subject of much controversy, but the question 
is easy of solution if careful and comparable experiments 
are made. Arthur long ago showed (Proc. Soc. Prom. 
Agr. Sci., 1891, p. 11; Bull. 42, Purdue Univ.) that the 
unit in such tests should not be the number of eyes to the 
piece, but the size of the piece. The piece contains food. 
The more food the stronger the initial growth of the plant ; 
and the stronger the initial growth, the better the crop, 
other things being equal. But if the piece is too large it 
contains so many eyes that there will be too many stalks to 
appropriate the food and to struggle with each other. The 
pieces on the tip or seed end " may contain several eyes, 
but those from the other parts of the tuber usually should 
contain only one or two eyes. Seed should not be cut any 
considerable time in advance of planting unless it is rolled 
in plaster to prevent excessive drying. 

The character of the crop depends greatly on the breed- 
ing. Seed tubers should be taken only from productive 
hills showing the qualities of the particular variety. 
Choosing good-looking tubers from the bin is not a form of 
plant-breeding; the selection should always consider the 
pedigree. Breeding for resistance to disease is important. 



210 



Tlie Potato Crops 



The grower who is not a potato-breeder should purchase 
seed of quality from persons who give it special attention. 

In the Southern States, the common or Irish potato 
(also called ^'^ round potato'^ and "white potato") is a 
minor crop in general farm operations. The crop must be 
grown either early or late in the season to avoid the long 
hot summer. It is then difficult to keep the potatoes from 
the spring crop until the next spring, or even until it is 
time to plant the second crop in August (in the Gulf 
States). "Seed" is commonly secured from the North, 
and only a spring crop is grown for the Northern market. 

Harvesting and storing. 

In small areas, potatoes are dug by hand, a potato hook 
or fork being used. In field operations, various horse- 
drawn diggers are employed. The implements cut under 
the row and lift out the potatoes, or turn them out as 
from a furrow. Usually there are rear fingers on the 




108. Outside storage of potatoes. 



White Potato 



211 



implement to sift out the earth and rattle the tubers clean. 
In other styles, there is a carrier that takes the potatoes to 
the rear of the machine and drops them there. The 

potatoes are allowed 
to lie in the sun for 
an hour or more, so 
that the earth will 
dry and shake off; 
then they are taken 
to shed, cellar or to 
regular storage. 

The potatoes 
should be graded for 
good market results. 
This may be accomplislied l)y the workmen as they pick up 
the potatoes in the field and deposit them in the baskets 
or crates. Several kinds of mechanical graders are now 





109. Potato storage-house in Maine. 



in use for the sorting of the commercial crop. Potatoes 
are marketed in bushel crates, sacks, ventilated barrels, 
and sometimes in bulk. 



212 



The Potato Crops 




111. Fruit 01- berry of potato (X %). 



Growers commonly prefer to dispose of the potato crop 
before winter^ as it is heavy and bulky to store and shrink- 
age is likely to be heavy. If the crop has been grown free 

from disease and well 
matured, however, it keeps 
well, in ordinary cool nn- 
heated cellars, in pits or 
in houses constructed for 
the purpose. Houses 
should be certainly frost- 
proof and capable of main- 
taining a temperature of 
approximately 40 degrees. 
Some of the forms of storage pits are shown in Chapter 
XIX. The illustrations show types of storage structures 
as described by Wil- 
liam Stuart in Farm- 
ers' Bulletin 847, U. S. 
Department of Agri- 
culture. Fig. 108 is a 
cross-section of a po- 
tato pit insulated with 
layers of straw and 
earth, showing the 
perforated ventilator 
in position and the 
potatoes piled in in- 
verted V-shaped fash- 
ion. Fig. 109 is Maine type of potato storage-house, with 
central driveway into the basement part. Fig. 110 is a 
good outside potato cellar. 




Cluster of potato flowers (X 2/5). 



]Y]iite Potato 



213 




Good sample of seed potatoes. 



On keeping potatoes in the South from the spring crop 
to the fall crop, McKay makes the following discussion (in 

Bull. 54, Miss. Exp. 
Station) : " If exposed 
to the hot sun a few 
hours Irish potatoes 
will hecome blistered. 
To prevent this, dig on 
cloudy days or else ar- 
range to remove to a 
shady place or cover in 
some way shortly after 
/ they are dug. Several 
methods of keeping po- 
tatoes during the hot 
summer months are 
practiced, and with varying success. Upon examination 
it will be found that, as a rule, those left in the field, 
scattered through the soil, keep better than those that are 
carefully housed. Taking 
this lesson from nature, we 
have tried the method of 
bedding the potatoes in the 
field, somewhat after the 
usual plan of bedding sweet 
potatoes for growing slips, 
and with good success. We 
are careful to see that the 
potatoes are covered to the 
depth of 6 or 7 inches with dirt, and that the bed is well 
drained. We have practiced the same method of bedding 




The round type of potato. 



214 



The Potato Crops 




The oblong type. 



the potatoes in the shade of spreading trees, and on the 
cellar floor. A cool, shady situation is better than the 
open field. AYe have had much better success with pota- 
toes covered with 
soil than with those 
spread out in open 
air in the cellar, or 
under trees cov- 
ered with leaves. 
In no event should 
the potatoes be 
piled or heaped 
together, so long as warm weather continues. If potatoes 
intended for the table are ex})o>ed to the light for any con- 
siderable length 

of time they will |l,>^f 
turn greenish in "Ct^ \ 

color and become 
unwholesome for 
food. If not 
spread in a dark 
place they 
should be cov- ''""^ff^^ 
ered with leaves, ^ ^ r'^^^^^^ii: 
straw or dirt." ^ 'r', ^^^-W^-"*' 

I aneties. 
The varieties 

of potatoes are numerous and poorly defined, and it is 
not worth the while to enumerate them here. Because o: 
variation and inattention to selection, varieties of potatoes 




116. A potato plant. 



White Potato 



215 



run out. New kinds are easily grown from the true seed^ 
but the seed-balls (Fig. Ill) are not often produced in 
the highly-bred potatoes^ probably because of insufficient 
pollen supply. Seeds are taken from the balls or berries 
and kept in the same way as from tomatoes. These seeds 
are sown the following spring, and the small tubers pro- 
duced the first season are planted the second season, 
when potatoes of full size will be obtained. If the seed 
is started early in hotbeds or greenhouse, however, and 
the seedlings transplanted two or three times, full-size 
tubers may be obtained the same year. Every seedling 
may be considered a new variety. The results are likely 
to be much more certain if the seed is of selected parent- 
age from hand-pollinated flowers. Fig. 112 shows the 
potato flower. A " sample of certified seed potatoes " 
is seen in Fig. 113, adapted from J. G. Milward, Bull. 252 
"Wisconsin Experiment Station. 

The desirable forms of potatoes are the short (round) 
and the oblong (Figs. 114, 115). The eyes should be shal- 
low, so that the wastage in paring is reduced to the mini- 
mum. Fig. 116 shows a ^Miill " of potatoes, in section. 

The Potato Plant 

Solanum. Solanacew. A vast genus, comprising probably 
1,200 species, on many parts of the globe, particularly in 
tropical America ; herbs, shrubs, twiners, trees. 

S. tuberosum, Linn. Sp. PL 185. {Lycopersicon tuherosum, 
Mill. Gard. Diet. No. 7. 1768). Potato. Spreading soft-stemmed 
usually pubescent perennial, persisting by means of tubers 
borne on the ends of white underground stems (rhizomes) that 
arise from the stalk above the seed tuber, with the roots : 
stem angled, branching, 2 to 2^2 ft. high: leaves dull dark 
green, rugose, alternate, oblong-ovate in outline, the petiole 



216 



The Potato Crops 



flattened or grooved above, odd-pinnate; leaflets 3 or 4 pairs 
and smaller ones between, the larger ones 1 to 2 in. long, 
ovate to oblong-ovate, pointed, unequal at base, stalked, mar- 
gins undulate but entire, the intermediate leaflets % to % in. 
long, sessile or essentially so : flowers white to bluish, in 
stalked forking clusters, about 1^4 in- across; corolla gamo- 
petalous, with 5 broad acute shallow lobes ; calyx about one- 
third the length of the corolla, the 5 lobes linear-lanceolate; 
stamens 5, the long colored anthers connivent about the single 
pistil and conspicuous in the center of the flower, the very 
short filaments attached on the base of the corolla ; ovary 
globular, sutured on either side, 2-celled with many ovules 
on central placentjie ; style long, exceeding the anthers, the 
protruding stigma capitate: fruit (corresponding to the 
tomato fruit) a 2-celled or 3-celled berry 1^2 to % in. diameter, 
green or yellowish, the calyx not enlarging. — Temperate Andes. 
Anciently cultivated by aborigines in South America. 

SWEET POTATO 
A warm sunny climate, long season, loose warm fertile 
soil, liberal supply of moisture in the growing season and a 
less supply iclien the tubers are maturing, careful atten- 
tion to diseases and insects, are some of the requirements 
of a good sweet potato crop. The plant is tender to frost. 
It is propagated hy means of its tubers, usually from the 
slips or shoots that arise ivhen the tubers are planted in 
beds or frames; also by cuttings of vines. 

One bushel of ordinary sweet potatoes will give 3,000 to 
4,000 plants, if the sprouts are taken off twice. The plants 
are usually set in drills 2^2 to 314 feet apart. The plants stand 
12 to 18 inches apart in the drill. At 18 x 36 inches, 9,680 
plants are required for an acre. These should be produced 
by 2 to 3 bushels of seed " tubers. The average yield of 
sweet potatoes is about 100 bushels an acre (65 to 170 bu.) ; 
but 3(X) to 400 bushels and more can be secured. 



Sweet Potato 



217 



Stem-eot (Fusarium l)atatis or Fusarium hyper'oxys- 
porum). — Leaves of affected plants become dull in color and 
yellow between the veins. Diseased vines wilt and the interior 
of the stems is blackened. Control: Disease-free potatoes ob- 
tained by selecting tubers from healthy plants in the field 
should be used for propagation. It is also advisable to treat 
the tubers just before planting five to ten minutes in a solu- 
tion made by dissolving one ounce of corrosive sublimate in 
eight gallons of water. Treated potatoes should be rinsed 
in water then dried in the sun. Careful sanitary measures 
in the hotbed are important. After being used once in the 
hotbed, soil should be removed and the framework and earth 
surrounding it drenched with a solution of formaldehyde or 
copper sulfate. Crop rotation is important since infection may 
take place in the field if plants are set in contaminated soil. 

Black-eot (Sphoeronema fimhriatum) . — Sunken black spots 
somewhat circular in shape appear on the surface of affected 
potatoes or other underground parts of the host. The lesions 
frequently enlarge and extend up the stem to the surface of 
the soil. The stem often rots off. Control: Selection of 
disease-free tubers for use in propagation is essential. Crop 
rotation and non-infected soil in the seed-bed, as recommended 
for the control of stem-rot, is important. 

Tortoise beetles (Cassida Mvittata, C. nigripes, Coptocycla 
hicolor, C. signifera, and Chelumorpha- argus) . — Small convex 
beetles of changeable color that feed on the foliage in both the 
adult and larval stage. The larvae have the peculiar habit 
of retaining their cast skins and excrement in a mass on a 
fork composed of two spines which extends forward over the 
back. Control: Spray with arsenate of lead (paste), 2 lbs. in 
50 gals, water, taking care to hit the underside of the leaves. 

Sweet potato weevil (Cylas formicarius) . — A slender snout- 
beetle, 14 in. long; the head is black, prothorax and legs red- 
dish and the wing-covers bluish black. The larvae burrow 
in all directions through the tubers, causing decay. The life- 
cycle is completed in about a month, one brood following an- 
other as long as food is available. Control: Rotate crops and 



218 



Tlie Potato Crops 



do not plant sweet potatoes near infested fields. Slightly 
injured tubers may be ted to stociv, but those badly infested 
may be buried deeply. Do not introduce the insect into unin- 
fested localities by means of infested tubers used for seed. 

Sweet potato flea-beetle (Chcctocncma confinis) . — A 
small flea-beetle, iV in- lonjj;. pitchy black with faint bronzy 
reflections. It hibernates as an adult under rubbish. The 
beetles do not eat holes in the leaves but cut channels on the 
upper surface, causing the leaf to turn brown and die. The 
larvne feed on the roots of bindweed. In New Jersey the attack 
is confined chiefly to plants in the field. Farther south the 
beetles injure the plants in the seed-bed. Control: Spray 
with arsenate of lead ; dip the plants before transplanting in 
arsenate of lead (paste), 1 lb. in 10 gals, water. 

The sweet potato is one of the leading crops of the South, 
and it is extensively grown as far north as the light lands 
of New Jersey. In more Northern States it is often growai 
in a small way on ridges in the garden. Sweet potatoes 
are shipped to all parts of the country, being one of the 
common foods in northern parts. They are also valuable 



Georgia, Texas, Alabama, Mississippi, Virginia, New Jer- 
sey. Certain varieties of sweet potatoes are called yams 
in the Southern States, but the word " yam " properly be- 




11' 



.7. A good lorm of sweet potatn. 



for live-stock. 
They are little 
known to the 
people of cen- 
t r a 1 Europe. 
The largest 
quantities are 
grown in the 
Carolinas, 



Sweet Potato 



219 



longs to a very different kind of plant, the Dioscoreas. Fig. 
117 shows " a well-proportioned sweet potato as illus- 
trated by R. G. Hill, of the N. Car. Extension Service 
(Ex. Cir. 30). Note 
also Fig. 118. 

The sweet potato 
requires a deep well- 
drained sandy loam. 
The soil should be 
liberally supplied 
with well - rotted 
manure. Wood ashes 
is often a most ex- 
c e 11 6 n t fertilizer. 
Commercial fertiliz- 
ers are extensively 
employed. The soil 
should be well pre- 
pared before the slips 
are set, to avoid the necessity of cultivating close to the 
roots. Clean tillage should be practiced until the ground 
is thickly covered by the vines. After this, large weeds 
should be removed with hand tools. Rows are about 3 feet 
apart, and the slips themselves are usually 15 or 18 inches. 
In level culture, 24 to 30 inches either way are good dis- 
tances, requiring 8,000 to 10,000 plants to the acre. In 
ridge culture, 30 to 40 inches between rows and 12 to 18 
inches in the row constitute good practice; 8,000 to 12,500 
plants go on an acre. 

On the fertilizing of sweet potatoes, R. W. De Baun 
writes as follows in Circ. 114 of tlie New Jersey Experi- 




118. A good lot of sweet potatoes. 



220 



The Potato Crops 



ment Station : " Well decomposed stable manure applied 
in the row is beneficial in producing maximum yields, but 
when manure is used in the drill, the surface of the sweet 
potato is more likely to be disfigured with black marks 
known as scurf, and spoken of as ' soil stain,' ' mottling,' 
^rust,' etc. This spoils the appearance of the sweet pota- 
toes and reduces their keeping qualities. A fertilizer con- 
taining a moderate amount of nitrogen and relatively high 
in phosphoric acid and potash gives a splendid yield. Fer- 
tilizer is easy to apply and is not likely to cause the devel- 
opment of scurf. The amount used to the acre varies from 
600 pounds to a ton. The most economical results are 
probably obtained by using 1200 pounds to the acre of a 
3-9-6 fertilizer. Following a clover cover-crop the per- 
centage of nitrogen in the fertilizer may be somewhat 
reduced. Lime is of direct benefit to the sweet potato 
crop, especially where the soil is quite sour. If it is to be 
used, light applications are recommended. Wood ashes 
which have never been wet are particularly beneficial for 
sweet potatoes, because they usually contain 5 to 6 per cent 
of potash and 30 per cent of quick-acting lime." 

Propagation. 

It is the custom to grow all varieties from shoots or 
cuttings, although the Spanish variety may be cut and 
planted like the Irish potato. The slips are grown in beds 
and transplanted to the field. Many growers prefer to 
plant only a small part of the field with the slips and the 
remainder with the prunings from the growth of these 
slips. Propagation is usually accomplished by means of 
(1) slips, and (2) cuttings. 



Sweet Potato 



221 



(1) Slips are the sprouts that arise from tubers when 
the}^ are planted or buried. Tubers of medium size are 
laid on' a mild hotbed and covered two inches deep with 
loose earth or leaf-mold. In the extreme South the tubers 
are sometimes " bedded " in loose warm earth, without 
bottom heatj but unless the weather is settled they are 
likel}^ to rot and the vegetation is slow. When the shoots 
are 3 to 5 inches high they are broken off next the tuber 
and set in the field. Roots will have formed while they 
were still attached to the tuber. Two to four crops of 
" slips " or " draws " may be taken from one tuber. The 
tuber is usually planted whole ; but large and sound tubers 
may be cut in two lengthwise and the cut side laid down- 
wards, although this treatment invites decay. Six to eight 
bushels of seed potatoes produce sufficient plants to set 
an acre if " drawn " once, or half that quantity if " drawn " 
three or four times; 4,000 plants is a large yield from a 
bushel. About two months are required to produce salable 
plants for set- | — ' r 



planted or most vigorous vines; sometimes a few vines are 
set very early for the particular purpose of securing plants 
for the remainder of the field. The cutting is usually 10 



ting. 



(2) Cut- 
tings are 
made from 
the ends of 
vines. They 
are taken 
from the 
earliest- 




119. Sweet potatoes ready for covering. 



222 



Tlie Potato Crops 



to 12 inches long. The leaves are removed, except at the 
tip, and the cutting is bnried directly in the soil where it 
is to grow permanently, being laid in a nearly ho'rizontal 
position, with only an inch or so of the tip projecting. 
Cuttings are very desirable to avoid the spread of tuber 
diseases. " Seed " selection is also very important in con- 
trolling diseases. 

Harvesting and storing. 

Immediately after the first frost the potatoes are gath- 
ered. A common method is to clear away the vines and 




120. Banks or pits of sweet potatoes. 



then to plow up the potatoes with a "hill sweep" (2- 
winged furrowing-plow. Special diggers are on the mar- 
ket. Potatoes are gathered into small piles, where they 
remain until removed from the field. 

The common method of storing is to bank in a cone- 
shaped pile. This pile is then covered with hay, and this 
is thatched with cornstalks, or covered shingle-like with 



Sweet Potato 



223 



pine bark. It shonld be kept dry and should be on a 
slightly elevated place. 

The storage of sweet potatoes presents special problems, 
however, and 




121. Storage of sweet potatoes on a farm in the South. 



further con- 
sidera tion 
may be given | 
it with illus- 
trations and 
comments 
adapted from 

H. C. Thomp- g;^:_-_-:Z^'-^-^f 
son in Farm- 
ers^ Bulletin 

970. Fig. 119 is a pile of sweet potatoes ready to be cov- 
ered with cane-tops and earth ; a ventilating hole or shaft is 
provided at the top. Fig. 120 shows a row of sweet-potato 
banks, with the ventilator openings at the top. Pits or 
banks are advised only when storage buildings cannot be 
provided. " Storage pits should be located where the drain- 
age is good. In making a pit a little of the surface soil is 
thrown back to form a level bed of the size desired. It is a 
good plan to dig two small trenches across the bed at right 
angles to each other, to provide for ventilation at the bot- 
tom. Lay boards or place troughs over the trenches, and 
at the point where the trenches cross set a small box on 
end to form a flue up through the pile of potatoes. The 
earth floor of the pit is covered with 4 or 5 inches of 
straw, hay, leaves or pine needles, and the potatoes are 
placed in a conical pile around the flue. A covering of 
straw, hay or similar material is put on the pile and 



224 



The Potato Crops 



over this a layer of soil. The covering of soil should 
be only a few inches thick at first but increased as the 
weather gets cold. Keep the ends of the trenches and 
flue open until it is necessary to close them to keep out 
the frost. It is better to make several small pits rather 




122. Section of a large sweet-potato house. 



than one large one, because it is best to remove the entire 
contents when the pit is opened." 

The illustration (Fig. 121) shows a crude but service- 
able type of outdoor cellar sometimes used in the South for 
sweet potatoes. It should have openings near the top and 



Slueet Potato 



225 



bottom and through the top for ventilation. Regular 
" sweet-potato storage houses may be built of wood, brick, 
hollow tile, cement, or stone. Wooden houses are preferable, 
because they 
are cheaper and c/fj /i/fry 
easier to keep dry 
than the other 
types. It is dif- 
ficult to keep 
moisture from 
collecting on the 
walls of a ce- 
ment, stone, or 
brick house. 
Where such 
houses are built 
for sweet-potato 
storage they 
should be lined with lumber, so as to keep the air in the 
house from coming in contact with the masonry walls. It 
is best to build sweet-potato storage houses on foundations 
that allow a circulation of air under them." Fig. 122 is a 
cross-section of a 24 x 60-foot sweet-potato house, and Fig. 
123 of a 12 X 16 house. " To keep sweet potatoes in good 
condition they must be (1) well matured before digging, 
(2) carefully handled, (3) well dried or cured after being 
put in the house, and (4) kept at a uniform temperature 
after they are cured.'' The Figs. 122 and 123 illustrate 
cross-sections of the structures. The horizontal lines indi- 
cate the construction of bins, which are slated on both 




small sweet-potato house. 



226 



The Potato Crops 



sides of 2 X 4 supports, with 1 x 4-inch material to pro- 
vide air space between the bins ; circulation is also provided 
b}' starting the bins 4 inches above the floor. 

Varieties. 

The purpose for which the crop is grown determines very 
largel}' the variety, and the variety will determine the care 
necessary ; e.g., the Eed Bermuda will grow in almost any 
soil and under very adverse conditions of climate and mois- 
ture, but the quality cannot be compared to that of the 
so-called yams. In the South a soft sugary sweet potato 
is desired. In the Xorth a firm dry tuber is wanted. 
Spanish, Sugar, Barbadoes, N'ancy Hall, Triumph, Dooley, 
and Hyman are popular far South. Xansemond and Jer- 
sey are prized for the North. The Yineless, a variety with 
short tops or vines ("vineless" meaning "not running," 
or "bushy"), is now a popular kind. x\s with the Irish 
potato, careful attention should be given to breeding. 

In the United States, the sweet potato rarely sets seed. 
In fact, it does not often bloom, although blossoms may 
appear late in the season under favorable conditions. The 
production of new varieties depends on tuber-selection and 
the appearing* of mutations or sports. 

The Sweet Potato Plant 

Ipomoea. ConvolvulacecF. Twining herbs, shrubs, even trees, 
largely of tropical countries, of about 400 species. 

I. Batatas, Poir. Encyc. vi. 14, 1S04. {Convolnihis Batatas, 
Linn. Sp. PI. 154. Batatas ediilis-. Choisy. Convoiv. Or. 53. 
1834.) Sweet potato. Tuberous-rooted perennial with long 
running tops, juice milky : stems prostrate, slender, extending 
many feet, rooting, angled, mostly with sparse thin hairs : 
leaves alternate, long-stalked, thinly hairy or glabrous, exceed- 



Botany of Sweet Potato 



227 



ingly variable in shape, usually ovate to round-ovate in out- 
line, cordate or truncate at base; blades entire and the margin 
merely wavy, or sometimes angled and notched, or deeply 
3- to 5-lobed and the basal lobes again lobed : flowers few 
or several terminating axillary peduncles of varying length 
(much shorter or considerably longer than the petiole), light 
violet with a darker center, like the flower of a morning-glory ; 
corolla about 2 in. long, obscurely obtusely 5-lobed ; calyx about 
i/o in. long, deeply parted into unequal cuspidate lobes which 
are sometimes ciliate ; stamens 5, the sagittate anthers and the 
slightly 2-lobed capitate stigma usually not half the length of 
the corolla ; ovary ciliate, sitting in a 5-angled yellow cup or 
disc. — Unknown wild, but supposed from historical and geo- 
graphical considerations to be native of the western hemi- 
sphere ; by some botanists thought to be a probable derivative 
of /. fastigiata. Sweet, of tropical America. It was early 
distributed in the islands of the Pacific and apparently was 
in China at least soon after the beginning of the Christian 
era ; but the Polynesians were great navigators, and they 
may have got it from America. It was probably anciently 
cultivated on the American continent. {Batatas or batata is 
an aboriginal American name for the sweet potato, from which 
the word " potato " is derived.) 



CHAPTER IX 



PEAS AND BEANS 

Peas and beans are usually closely associated in the 
public mind, and they are in fact closely related botani- 
cally ; yet they have few points in common from the culti- 
vator's point of view, since peas are hardy cool-season 
plants and beans are tender warm-season plants. Both are 
leguminous crops, and are therefore capable of using at- 
mospheric nitrogen by means of their root nodules and the 
bacteria in them. As garden crops, however, they may need 
applications of nitrogen to secure a quick start, particu- 
larly if an early crop is desired. " It is frequently the 
wiser economy,'' as expressed by Yoorhees, " to apply ni- 
trogen, particularly if they are raised upon land which 
has not been previously planted with these crops, and thus 
may not possess the specific nitrogen-gathering bacteria.'^ 
The peas and beans, of divers kinds, constitute the pulse 
crops. 

The basic formula recommended on page 383, if applied 
to pulse crops at the rate of 500 to 600 pounds to the 
acre, will usually furnish sufficient nitrogen, and may, if 
necessary, be supplemented by the application of amounts 
of superphosphate and potash salts which will add from 
30 to 30 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 60 to 75 of potash 
(Voorhees, Fertilizers, rev. ed. 297). 

(228) 



Peas and Beans Contrasted 



229 



One of the important attributes in distinguishing 
species in these plants is the nature of germination. 
In the garden pea, the " pea does not come up/' but 
remains under 
ground, while the 
bean comes up " ; 
that is, the cotyle- 
dons or seed-leaves 
(resting in the seed) 
remain below 

ground, in which 124. Young plants of pea; cotyledons hypogeal 

case the germina- 

tion is said to be hypogeal ("beneath the earth"), 
or they are liberated and appear above ground, in which 
case the germination is epigeal. Deep planting is safer 
with the hypogeal seeds. The common beans are 
epigeal, but the broad beans and multifloras, and some 
others, are hypogeal. The distinctions between some 
of the species of beans (Phaseolus) are very marked in 
their method of germination and in the character of the 
first leaves following the seed-leaves. The pictures in this 
chapter are interesting in this connection. In Fig. 124, 
the peas have remained in the ground, as also the bean 
in Fig. 140; but in Figs. 132, 135, 143, the beans have 
come out of the ground and cling to the stems. 

PEA 

Peas are a 'partial-season crop, requiring cool climate and 
a soil not over rich; seed is sown where the plants are to 
stand; grow in drills; hardy and may he sown very early. 

Peas are usually sown in two rows 6 to 8 in. apart. Tf 
tall varieties are grown, one row of brush or chicken-wire 




230 



Peas and Beans 



(the wire is better) answers for both rows; if the dwarf 
kinds are grown, one row will help to support the other. 
Between each two pairs of rows a space should be left wide 
enough for convenient tillage. The plants should stand 3 to 4 
inches in the row. One pint of seed of the small-seeded 
varieties will sow 100 to 125 ft. of single drill. In drills, 1 to 2 
bushels will sow an acre; broadcast, 2 to 8 bushels. Early 
peas are usually planted deep, 3 in. and more. Table peas 
may be had in about 70 days from the sowing of first-early 
varieties. Green peas in the pod yield about 100 to 150 bu. 
to the acre. 

Blight {Ascochyta pisi and Septoria pisi). — These are two 
distinct blights, yet the symptoms and control measures are 
in general the same. Circular gray to dark brown spots occur 
on the leaves and sunken spots of a similar nature on the 
pods. Sometimes the small black fruiting bodies of the fungus 
are evident in the affected areas. Control: Seed from disease- 
free plants is necessary since the fungus may be carried in 
the seed, and crop rotation should be practiced. Diseased pea 
refuse in manure carries the organisms, but after fermenta- 
tion in a silo it may be safely used. 

RooT-EOT {Fusarium sp. and Pijthium sp.). — A dry rot at 
and beneath the surface of the ground is caused by either of 
these organisms. Control: Crop rotation, care in the use of 
infested manure, and the development of resistant strains 
seems to afford the only possible control. 

Pea weevil {BrucJius pisonim). — A small brownish beetle, 
mottled with gray, white, and dark brown, that deposits its 
eggs on pea pods in the field. On hatching, the grub burrows 
through the pod and enters a se^d where it reaches maturity 
in about 40 days. It then cuts a smooth round hole to the 
surface of the pea, leaving only the outer hull intact. In the 
South many of the beetles emerge in the fall and hibernate, 
but in the North they do not usually emerge till spring. Only 
one weevil is found in each pea. There is but one brood 
annually. Peas are not reinfested in storage as is the case 
with beans. Control: Do not use infested seed for planting 



The Pea 



231 



nor is it a good plan to use seed in wliieh the weevils have 
been killed, as such seed produces only weak plants. Seed 
peas may be held over to the second year, by which time the 
weevils will have emerged and died. 

Pea aphis {Macrosiphum pisi) . — A moderate sized pea-green 
plant-louse that often attacks peas in great numbers, causing 
the plants to take on a sickly yellowish appearance and die. 
Infested blossoms are blasted and injured pods are stunted 
and rendered worthless. The pea aphis passes the winter on 
clover, in the South principally on crimson clover. Control: 
Peas grown in rows about twenty inches apart are less likely 
to be injured than when sown broadcast. When grown in 
rows the lice may be controlled by spraying with " Black 
Leaf 40 " 11 oz. in 100 gals, water in which 10 lbs. fishoil 
soap have been dissolved. Applications should be made at 
weekly intervals. Avoid loss by raising the main crop early 
in the season for the cannery before the lice become abundant. 

Pea moth {Laspeijresia nigricana) . — A small slightly hairy 
yellowish black-headed caterpillar about i/4 in. long, that in 
the Northern States and Canada sometimes causes great dam- 
age by infesting pea pods, where it feeds on the unripe seeds. 
In Wisconsin the moths begin laying eggs about the middle 
of July, which hatch in a week or ten days. Control: Both 
very early and late varieties of peas are less liable to injury. 
Adopt a crop rotation in which peas do not follow peas nor are 
planted in fields adjourning those interested the previous year. 

We may distinguish three uses or purposes for which peas 
are grown: as picked peas, the pods being gathered by 
hand and the product sold directly in the market; as a 
canning crop, whereby they are grown under much less 
intensive methods, mown with a mowing-machine, trans- 
ported by wagon-load or truck-load, and shelled by run- 
ning vines and pods through machinery devised for the 
purpose; as a general field crop, often in connection with 
oats, for forage. 



Peas and Beans 




125. Wrinkled pea (X 2J. 



Garden or picked peas are of the easiest culture. They 
thrive best in spring rather tlian in summer, but they also 
thrive in autumn from late-sown seeds. In summer they 

are very liable to mildew and 
to injury by heat. Peas and 
onions are the first vegetables 
to be sown in the open ground. 
Even before freezing weather is 
l)ast, peas may be planted. It 
s customary to plant them 3 to 
5 inches deep : the roots are 
then deep enough to be in 
cool and moist soil. Early 
peas are frequently planted more shallow. 

A lioht soil is chosen when earliness is desired; but for 
the main crop the clay loams are excellent. A very rich 
soil tends to make the plants run to vine and to delay the 
crop. Succession al sowings should be made at intervals of 
six to ten days. 

For early use, the dwarf varieties should be chosen. 
Eor the main or late crop the 
tall or climbing sorts, which 
are more productive, are pre- 
ferred. Pinching-in the exces- 
sive growths tends to make the 
tall varieties somewhat earlier. 
Early in August in the North- 
ern States dwarf varieties may 
be so^Ti for fall use. The first sowings in spring are 
usually of the " smooth " peas, as they are less likely to 
rot in the ground than the wrinkled kinds. The very 




Smooth pea (X about 2). 



The Pea 



233 



early dwarf peas are procluctive in proportion to the 
size of plant, but the actual yield is not large. Most 
of them are harvested in one or two pickings. The early 
pea does not compare with the string bean in productive- 
ness, and allowance must be made for this fact in plan- 
ning the home gar- 
den, if one is fond 
of green peas. 

As a canning crop 
peas are sown broad- 
cast or by a grain 
drill. Usually the 
crop is not tilled, as 
it is off the ground 
in June or July be- 
fore the land gets 
very weedy. The 
crop is harvested 
with a mowing-ma- 
chine, gathered with 
a hay - rake, and 
hauled to the factory 
where the threshing 
is done. The straw 
is used as sheep feed 
and is valuable as manure. In central New York canning 
peas are planted May 1 to 15; the crop is oif in July; li/o 
tons to the acre is an approximate yield (in the pod). 

Peas are of two kinds as to character of seed : the seed 
wrinkled and the seed smooth (Figs. 125, 126). The 
wrinkled are the better in quality. There are dwarf and 




127. A legume,— the pod and seeds of pea (X %)• 



234 



Pe(Ls and Beans 



tall varieties of both the wrinkled and smooth types. For 
very early there are many popular strains, as Alaska, 
Gradus, Thomas Laxton, Surprise, Eclipse, First-of-All, 
Philadelphia, Daniel O'Eourke, American Wonder, Little 
Gem, Blue Peter. For late. Marrow iat, Champion of 
England, Telephone, Telegraph, and Stratagem are pop- 
ular names. These are intermediate or second-early 
varieties. Full pods are seen in Fig. 127. 

A race of peas with edil)le pods, comparable to string 
beans, is considerably grown abroad but is little known 
here. These are known as edible-podded, or sugar peas, 
eaten pods and all, when immature. The Melting Sugar 
pea is of this kind. These are of the same species as the 
common pea. 

Other plants are known as peas. Tlie cowpea is one 
of them, althou^ah ])roperly a bean. This plant is not 
within the purview of the ]) resent volume. 

The I'ea Plant 

Pisum. Lcijuminosrr. A half dozen species of animals and 
perennials in the Mediterranean roirion and western Asia. 

P. sativum, Linn. Sp. PI. 727. Garden or Culinary Pea. 
Smooth glaucous annnal, with hyjiou'eal germination: stems 
weak and slender, hollow, erect only by means of the tendrils, 
3 to 6 ft. high : leaves alternate, odd-pinnate, with a pair 
of leafy veiny stipules clasping the stem ; leaflets 2 to 6 pairs, 
of which the first 2 or 3 pairs are regular foliage blades and 
the remainder tendrils ; expanded leatlets oval, oblong, elliptic 
to nearly circular, sessile, the apex rounded, emarginate or 
cuspidate, the margins entire, irregularly serrate or toothed ; 
tendril-leaflets simple (not branched) : flowers 1 to 3 ter- 
minating a long axillary peduncle, white, sometimes violet, 
papilionaceous ; calyx large and green with 5 deep acute lobes ; 
corolla about twice the length of the calyx ; standard erect 



Botany of Pea 



235 



or the sides inflexed or retiexed, orbicular and emarginate; 
Avings closely appressed over the upwardly curved keel; sta- 
mens monadelphous, 9 and 1, the tube inclosing most of the 
smooth green shining ovary ; style bent upward, not coiled, 
bearded on the inner face below the stigma : fruit a several- 
seeded dehiscent pod 2 to 4 in. long, nearly straight on the 
back and knife-shaped on the front, beaked at the apex, the 
sides more or less reticulated, the remains of the calyx per- 
sistent below its base : seeds 2 to 10, mostly whitish or green- 
ish, even or wrinkled, globular or angled, i/4 to % in. diam., 
weighing 300 to 400 mg. and more, and retaining vitality 
3 to 5 years. — Native in Europe and Asia, and cultivated from 
earliest times. Var. humile, Poir. in Lam. Diet, v, 456. 1804. 
(P. hum He, Mill. Diet. No. 2. 17CS.) Dwarf pea. Low, a 
few inches to about 2 ft. tall, the pods small, plant early : 
the early garden pea. Var. macrocarpon, Ser. in DC. Prodr. 
ii, 36S. 1825. (Var. saccharatum, Hort., not Ser.) Edible- 
podded PEA. Pods lacking the stiff lining, soft and edible, not 
dehiscent, often very large (sometimes 5 to 6 in. long and 1 in. 
broad), but frequently not larger than in other peas. 

Var. arvense, Poir. in Lam. Diet, v, 456. 1804. (P. arvense, 
Linn. Sp. PI. 727.) Field pea. Flowers colored, the standard 
usually pinkish or light violet and the wings purple, keel often 
greenish : peduncles usually shorter, often little exceeding 
the stipules : leaves sometimes spotted with gray : pod and 
seeds mostly small. — Grown for forage, often with oats and 
other grain. 

BEANS 

Garden heans represent several species, but all the com- 
mon kinds in North America are very tender to frost 
and require a warm season and sunny exposure; soil 
should he open and light, hut fertile; seed is soiun ivhere 
the plants are to groiu; usually groion in drills, except 
the tall kinds; the common hush heans are partial-season 
plants. 



236 



Peas and Beans 



Bush string (snap) beans are so\yn in drills, the rows 
being 18 to 30 in. apart to allo^y of easy tillage. The plants 
should stand 4-8 in. in the row. Plant 1 or 2 in. deep. One 
pint will sow from 75 to 12.5 ft. of drill, depending on the 
variety. In drills, 1 bushel to 5 pecks are sown to the acre. 
One hundred bushels, more or less, is a fair acre-yield of 
string beans, and 200 bushels are frequently reported. The tall 
or pole beans are usually grown in hills 8 or 4 ft. apart. 

Anthracnose {Collrtotrichum lindemuthiamim) . — This dis- 
ease may be recognized by the presence of black spots on the 
stem, leaf-stalk and leaf-veins, and l)lack sunken cankers on 
the pods. Affected seeds show discolored areas on their sur- 
face. Control: Clean seed obtained from disease-free plants 
or pods should be used for plantim:. The Wells Red Kidney 
and the White Imperial are resistant, and breeding work now 
being conducted promises to yield other resistant types. Spray- 
ing at intervals with 4-4-50 bordeaux mixture is sometimes 
recommended, but it is of doubtful practicability except in 
small garden planting. 

Bacterial blight (Bacterium i)]iascoli). — Water-soaked to 
brownish splotches on leaves and pods are characteristic. Af- 
fected seeds may show yellowish discolored areas. Field and 
garden varieties and lima beans are affected. Control: Seed 
from disease-free plants should be chosen. The kidney type 
among the field beans has proved to be very susceptible. 

Mosaic. — Alternate light and dark green areas and cupped 
swellings on the young leaves especially are indicative of this 
disease. No causal organism has been discovered. The disease 
is carried over in the seed. Control: Seed from disease-free 
fields should be planted. Marrow and Yellow-Eye beans are 
nearly free from the disease. The Red Kidney is somewhat 
resistant. The Michigan Robust pea-bean is a high-yielding 
strain apparently unaffected by mosaic. Other pea-beans and 
medium-beans become severely diseased. 

Dry Root-Rot (Fusaritim sp.). — The fungus affects the stem 
beneath the surface of the ground, causing a dry rot. Control: 
Plant on land free from the organism and avoid the use of 



Tlie Bean 



237 



bean straw or manure on iincontaminated soil. Long rotations 
and shallow cultivation are desiralile. Experimental breeding 
promises to yield commercial strains resistant to the fusarium. 

Bean weevil (Bruclius odtectus). — This is a small light- 
brown beetle, having the wing-covers about % in. in length, 
mottled with light brown, gray and black. The eggs are laid 
in the pods in the field and the grubs develop in the seeds 
and transform to beetles within cavities just under the integu- 
ment. In emerging the beetle cuts out a circular lid in the 
seed-coat. Several beetles may develop within a single seed. 
The number of generations that may develop annually in the 
•field depends on the temperature and length of the season. 
In the North there is only one brood but in the South there 
may be six or more. In storage, breeding may be continuous 
if the temperature is sufficiently high and the beans may be 
reduced to a powdery mass. Control: Weevils in the beans 
may be killed by fumigating with carbon bisulfide at the 
rate of about 1 ounce to each bushel of seed. A container as 
near air-tight as ])ossible should be used and the fumigation, 
continued for twenty-four to thirty-six hours. It is not advis- 
able to use weevil-infested beans for seed since the germina- 
tion is poor, and weak plants are produced. 

Bean leaf-beetle (Ceratoma trifiircata) . — This small beetle, 
about Ys in. in length, is yellowish to reddish and has the 
wing-covers marked with six black spots. The beetles feed on 
the underside of the leaves and riddle the foliage with holes. 
The eggs are laid on the ground at the base of the plants and 
the grubs attack the roots. From one to three broods occur 
annually, depending on the length of the season. Control: 
Spray the plants with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds of paste or 
2 pounds of powder, at the first appearance of the beetles, 
taking care to hit both the under surface and the upper sur- 
face of the plants. 

Bean ladybied (Epilachna corrupta). — In the semi-arid 
regions of the Southwest this ladybird beetle is a serious 
enemy of beans. It is yellowish to brownish orange, about 
Ys in. in length, and has the wing-covers marked with 16 small 



238 



Peas and Beans 



black spots arranged in three transverse rows. The beetles 
riddle the leaves with holes and attack the pods and blossoms. 
Eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves and the larvae 
skeletonize them. There are one or two generations annually, 
depending on the length of the season. Control: In the home 
garden the beetles may be handpicked or the larvie brushed 
off on the hot ground, where they will perish before regaining 
the plant. In larger fields the plants may be protected by 
spraying with arsenate of lead, 8 pounds of paste or 4 pounds 
of powder to 50 gallons of water, adding 4 pounds of lime to 
prevent burning of the foliage. Care should be taken to hit 
the underside of the leaves. It is sometimes advisable to plant 
the crop either early or late to avoid the insects, when they 
tire numerous. 

Bean thrips (Heliothrips fasciatus). — In the Far West 
beans are sometimes seriously injured by a minute thrips. The 
insect is only about 1/24 in. in length and is black. The 
insects rasp and puncture the tissues, causing the leaves to 
turn yellowish or white, dry up and die. Control: Early 
planting and thorough cultivation will produce a rapid growth 
and help the plants to outgrow the injury. In the garden 
the plants may be sprayed with " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco 
extract, 1 part in 800 parts of water, to which enough soap 
has been added to give a good suds. 

Bean aphis {Ai)his rumicis). — This black plant-louse passes 
the winter in the egg stage on evonymus, syriuga, snowball 
and deutzia, from which it migrates in the summer to many 
vegetables and several common weeds. Control: On beans the 
lice may be controlled by spraying with " Black Leaf 40 " 
tobacco extract, 1 part in 100 parts of water, to which enough 
soap is added to give a good suds. 

Striped green bean caterpillar (Ogdoconta cinereola). — 
Bean vines are sometimes stripped of their foliage and pods 
by a pale green looping caterpillar striped with whitish and 
yellowish longitudinal lines. When mature, it is almost an 
inch in length. Control: The caterpillars may be poisoned by 
spraying with arsenate of lead .(paste), 5 pounds in 100 gallons 



Tlie Bean 



239 



of water. On snap beans tobacco dust may be used to drive 
the caterpillars from the plants. 

Greets clover worm (Plathypena scabra). — While the more 
usual food plant of this insect is clover, it sometimes becomes 
very destructive to beans. The caterpillar when full grown is 
nearly an inch in length and striped lengthwise with whitish 
lines. Control: The caterpillars may be poisoned by spraying 
with arsenate of lead (paste), 2 pounds in 50 gallons of water. 
On string beans, where the poison would be obectiouable, the 
tobacco dust may be used. 

Seed-corn maggot (PhorMa fusciceps) . — It sometimes hap- 
pens, especially in cold backward seasons, that seed beans 
in the ground are attacked by a small whitish maggot that 
either entirely destroys them or so injures the bud that when 
the plant comes up no leaves are produced. Much of the 
injury may be avoided by planting the seed rather shallow. 

As the beans are of so many kinds and types, we must 
state the main situation at the outset: 

1, Broad bean, the 
bean of history, a 
hardy plant little 
raised in this country 
and very different 
from any of the fol- 
lowing. — Vicia Faba. 
Figs. 128, 129, 130, 
all representing Broad 
Windsor. 

2. Common bean of 
North America, kid- 
ney bean of the English, haricot of the French. — Phaseo- 
lus vulgaris: 

a. Snap or string beans, in which the green pod and 




128. Seeds of broad bean.— Broad Windsor (X %)• 



240 



Peas and Beans 



its contents are eaten, developed mostly on busli or non- 
climbing plants. 

b. Dry field beans, for the general market, the ripe 
product of bush 
varieties for the 
most part. 

c. Shell beans, 
in which the nearly 
full grow n but 
unripe beans are 
shelled and eaten, 

the produce for the ^29. seedlings, or young plants, of broad bean 

most part of pole 





J30. Broad Windsor bean (X 1/3)- 



varieties. 

3. Multi- 
flora beans, 
grown as snap 
or shell beans 
but mostly 
known in this 
country as or- 
namentals, par- 
ticularly the 
Scarlet E u n - 
ner ; mostly 
pole beans. — 
Phaseolus 
multifiorus. 

4. Sieva and 
lima beans. 



Tlie Bean 



241 




grown as shell beans or for the ripe dry product; both 
bush and pole varieties. — Phaseolus lunatus. 

5. Tepary, grown as ripe beans in the dry far South- 
west, and for land improvement, annual in- 
digenous bush beans, with a viney or semi- 
twining habit on good land. — Phaseolus 
acutifolius var. latifolius (Figs. 131, 132). 
6. Metcalfe bean, an indigenous long- 
131. Tepary bean running perennial species introduced in 
(X 1 1/3). -j-j-^g Southwest for forage. — Phaseolus 
Metcalfei {P. retusus). 

7. Various oriental beans, mostly bush, grown for the 
dry seeds, yet little known in this country but likely to at- 
tract attention. Among them Adzuki, Urd, Mung, Moth, 
Rice beans, all represent different species of Phaseolus. 

8. Soybean, grown mostly in this country 
and soil improvement. 
— Glycine Soja. 

9. Cowpea and re- 
lated beans, cultivated 
chiefly for forage and 



for forage 




Vigna species. 

10. Velvet beans, 
planted far south for 
forage. — StizoloUum ^.p,,^ 
species. 

In this book, only the first four groups are discussed. 
There are other types of cultivated beans, in other species 
and genera, but so little grown in this country that they 
do not require listing here. 



242 



Feas and Beans 



Broad Bean 

The broad bean is a stiff erect plant, as hardy as peas, 
grown in Europe for food, either the green or dry beans 
l)eing used. It is not commonly 
known in this country, appar- 
ently because the summers are 
too hot; and the winters in the 
North are so severe that it can- 
not be planted in autumn and 
carried over, as in the milder 




B'.ack Wax bean (X about 1). 



parts of Europe. 



In the southernmost States and on the 

Pacific Coast 
the crop may 
be seeded in 
September to 
Novem- 
ber. The beans 
are large. 
They make a 
rather coarse 
but never- 
theless very 
excellent 
dish. They 
are sometimes 
grown for 
stock feed, 
and for gTeen- 
m a n u r - 
ing. Broad 
beans appar- 




134. Black Wax (X ^/a). 



The Bean 



243 




bean (X 



ently thrive best in regions tempered by the sea. Inocu- 
lation of the land is desirable, with soil in which a good 
crop has been grown. 

The amateur may 
start plants under 
glass and transplant 
to the open ; but usu- 
ally the seeds are 
sown where the 
plants are to stand, 
at the earliest mo- 
ment in spring. If SeedUngs of 

to be used as green or shell beans, care must be taken that 
the pods do not become hard. 

The rows may be 2 to 3 feet apart ; the plants may stand 
4 to 6 inches. The varieties mostly known with us are 
Broad Windsor, Mazagan, Sword Long-pod. The beans 
should be ready for use in late spring and summer. 
There are many varieties, differing greatly in size of pod 
and in size and shape of seed. These plants as a class are 

sometimes know^n as " horse 
beans.'' 

The Common Garden Bean 

The common bean is grown 
in two general types : the bush 
bean and the pole bean. In 
JSTorth America the bush bean 
is by far the more important 
since its growing obviates the labor and expense of provid- 
ing support on which the plants may climb. Bush beans 




Dutch case-knife bean 
(somewhat enlarged). 



244 



Peas and Beans 



are grown both as a field 
garden crop they are used 




137. Dutch case-knife (X about Vz). 



two groups — the green- 
j^odded, represented by the 
flageolets, and the j^ellow- 
podded or wax beans 
(Figs. 133, 134, 135), the 
more popular in this 
country. 

In order that string bea 



op and a garden crop. As a 
lostly as " string " beans, the 
pods being picked when they 
are two-thirds grown, the pod 
and beans together being 
eaten. There are certain 
strains of bush beans particu- 
larly adapted to this use. 
They are such as have thick 
and fleshy pods, with very 
little fibrous tissue in the 
sutures. The pods of a good 
string bean have no " strings.^' 
The pods break cleanly in 
two, and this gives rise to the 
common name, "snap^' beans. 
The snap beans are again of 




I > 



138. Flowers cf multiflora bean.— Scarlet 
Runner (X 

; may be of the best quality. 



The Bean 



245 




they should make a rapid and continuous growth. The 
soil should be rich and in excellent tilth. Plant only after 
the weather has become thoroughly 
settled. A succession may be had all 
summer. Although beans are nitro- 
gen-gathering plants, it is never- 
theless advisable to apply a little 
nitrogen at the start on land that is 

139. common wax bean (X D. ^-^^^ Supplied with humUS OP 

in which beans have not been grown within a year or two. 

For canning as string beans, the Wax and Eefugee are 
grown. In central New York the crop is planted about 
May 15, and the harvest is August 1 till frost. An acre 
yields approximately 5,000 pounds. 

String beans are pro- 
ductive, and if the 
ground is frequently 
tilled and the beans 
picked before they get 
hard, the yield will 
continue for a consid- 
erable time, in this 
respect differing from 
peas. They are picked 
by hand. All broken, 
imperfect and diseased 
pods should be dis- 
carded when market- 
ing. They are sent to market in baskets and hampers. 

Other kinds of garden beans are used as shell beans." 
The large soft seeds are gathered just before they begin to 




140. Multiflora bean, showing the hypogeal 
cotyledons (X V*)- 



246 



Peas and Beans 



harden, and the pods are not eaten. Some of the best of 
these shell beans are pole or running varieties, the Cran- 
berry or so-called Horticultural Lima, White Creaseback, 
Kentucky Wonder or Old Homestead, Dutch Case-Knife 
(Figs. 136, 137, sometimes erroneously referred to the Mul- 



Eunner, with white flowers. The pods may be eaten as 
snap beans, but usually they are grown to the shell-bean 
stage. These varieties are high climbers, making good 
screens. They may be planted along fences or lattices as 
are other pole beans, or in hills 3 or 4 feet apart. There 
are bush varieties, but little known in gardens. 




tiflora Group), being amongst 
the most popular. Pole beans 
require that the plants stand 
farther apart in the row, usu- 
ally 1 foot or so, and the rows 
2% to 3 feet, for intensive culti- 
vation. It is usually recom- 
mended that they be planted in 
hills 3 or 4 feet either way, with 
a pole to each hill. When 
planted in rows, wide wire fenc- 
ing may be used for support. 
Pole beans require the entire 
season in which to make a crop. 



Multifiom Bean 



141. Pods of sieva bean (X %). 



The Multifloras are known in 
this country mostly by the Scar- 
let Eunner, with bright scarlet 
flowers, and the White Dutch 



The Bean 



247 



These beans are perennial, and the thick roots live over 
winter if they do not freeze, the plants then coming into 
bearing early. Sometimes the roots are lifted in autumn 
and carried over winter in sand in the cellar. Commonly, 
however, the plants are treated in all ways as annuals, as 
are other pole 



beans. 

Growers ordi- 
narily do not dis- 
tinguish sharply 
between the mul- 
tifloras and the 



common garden 
beans. Aside 
from the dura- 
t i n of the 
plants, differ- 
ences in germi- 
nation, unlike 
flower - clusters, 
the plants differ 
also in flowers, as 
seen in Figs. 138 
and 139 ; note 
the size, shapes, and also the calyx-bracts and the bracts 
at the axils. Figs. 135 and 140 may also be compared. 

Sieva and Lima Beans 
The limas are beans of high quality. They may be 
thrown into the following classes: 

1. The sieva or Carolina bean (Phaseolus lunatus), a 




142. Lima bean (X 1/3). 



248 



Peas and Beans 



relatively small and slender grower, early and compara- 
tively hardy,, apparently annual, with thin, short and 
mostly broad (ovate-pointed) leaflets, numerous small 

papery pods much 
curved on the back 
and provided with 
a long upward 
point or tip and 
with the habit of 
splitting open and 
twisting when ripe, 
discharging the 
seeds beans small and flat, white, brown, or - variously 
marked with red (Fig. 141). 

2. The true lima bean (P. lunahis var. macrocai'pus) , 
distinguished from the sieva by its tall growth, lateness, 
greater susceptibility to cold, perennial in tropical climates, 
large thick often ovate-lanceolate leaflets, and fewer thick 
fleshy straightish (or sometimes laterally curved) pods 
with a less prominent point and not readily splitting open 
at maturity; seeds much larger, white, red, black or 
speckled (Figs. 142, 143). Of this true or large lima 
two types are in cultivation : 

(a) The Flat or Large-Seeded limas, that have large 
very flat and more or less lunate and veiny seeds, very 
broad pods with a distinct point, and broad ovate leaf- 
lets (Fig. 144). 

(b) The Potato limas, with smaller and tumid seeds, 
shorter and thicker pods with a less prominent point, 
and long-ovate leaflets tapering from a more or less an- 
gular base into a long apex. There are dwarf forms. 




143. Germination of lima bean (X %)• 



The Bean 



249 



Lima beans demand a long season and continnons growth, 
particularly the tall or true lima varieties. Yery often the 
flowers are blasted by the hot dry weather of midsummer. 
It is well, therefore, to get 
the plants established as early 
as possible that some of the 
fruit may set before the hot- 
test weather. It is important 
that the earliest and quick- 
est soil be chosen and that 

quickly available fertilizers Large flat llma bean (nearly 

■'• natural size). 

be applied when the seeds are 

planted. Light and sandy lands are usually preferable. 
In these, plant-food acts quickly and the plant secures a 
good and very early start. 

The tall varieties must have strong supports. When 
poles are. scarce, it is a good plan to set rather strong stakes 
10 to 12 feet apart and to run wires or heavy cord from 
pole to pole, one strand near the top and one within a foot 
or so of the ground, and then to connect these horizontal 
strands with perpendicular cords. Sometimes several 
plants or hills of lima beans are planted in a semicircle 
around one strong stake, and strings are run from the top 
of the stake to the ground, making a cone. This is a very 
good plan for the home garden, since the vines are well ex- 
posed to the sun, but is too laborious for general market 
cultivation. In commercial plantations, one bare pole is 
ordinarily provided for each hill; and the hills are 3 to 5 
feet asunder, sometimes as much as 6 feet. The beans are 
planted 2 to 3 inches deep, with the eye downward ; 3 to 5 
beans are left in a hill. 




250 



Peas and Beans 



In the Northernmost States, it is nsually inadvisable to 
attempt to grow the large late pole lima beans unless one's 
soil is particularly quick and the exposure is very warm. 
The seasons are usually too short, and the nights are likely 
to be too cool. Under such conditions it is best to rely 
largely on the sieva kinds, which are not very high climbers 
and some of which are nearly or quite " bush " in form 
and habit. These sieva beans are very heavy croppers and 
mature in the short seasons of the North. Although the 
beans are not very large, the quality is good. 

Lima beans are more tender than the common garden 
beans, and are planted later. 

The dwarf limas are excellent for northern gardens. 
Some of them are heavy croppers, and they retain the ex- 
cellent quality of the pole varieties. They may be planted 
as close as 6 to 10 inches in the row, and the rows may 
stand only 2 feet asunder. 

The Bean Plants 
Vicia. Lcgumhwscr. A genus of wide distribution on the 
globe, comprising more than 100 species of annual and peren- 
nial herbs. 

V. Faba, Linn. Sp. PI. 737. {Faha vulgaris, Moench, Meth. 
150. 1794.) Broad Bean. Strong erect simple or sometimes 
branched plant. 1 to 6 ft. high : germination hypogeal : stem 
glabrous, angled and grooved : Ivs. many, all cauline, pinnate, 
petioled, with clasping stipules; leaflets 2 to 6, semi-opposite 
or alternate, entire, various in size and shape, 1^2 to 4 in. 
long, obovate, elliptic to lance-ovate, blunt or very obtuse or 
even retuse and usually short-cuspidate, the terminal one usu- 
ally represented by a rudimentary tendril : flowers few in 
short axillary clusters, narrow, papilionaceous, 1 to V/o in. 
long, dull white with purple markings on the standard and 
purple wings or purple spot on them ; calyx unequally 



Botany of Beans 



251 



5-tootlied, less than half the length of the corolla; standard 
folded over the much shorter wings and the \Yings longer 
than the keel which incloses the 9-and-l stamens and the 
upwardly bent style which is bearded just back of the stigma : 
pod variable, large, 1 to 4 at a joint, 3 to G in. long, 1 in. or 
less broad, at first erect but usually becoming declined or 
pendent with weight, flattened or circular in cross-section, 
beaked at the summit : seeds 2 to 8 to the pod, nearly globular 
to flattened-angular, usually heavier than lima beans. — Prob- 
ably W. Asian and X. African in origin, but the indigenous 
form unknown ; cultivated from the earliest times. {Faha is 
Latin name for bean.) 

Phaseolus. Lpguminosce. Perhaps 150 species of warm- 
country annual and perennial herbs, mostly twining. 

P. vulgaris, Linn. Sp. PI. 723. Common Pole Bean. Kid- 
ney Bean. Tall-twining pubescent annual : germination epi- 
geal : stems very slender, branching, angled : Ivs. pinnately 
3-foliolate, petiole long, stipules small and acute, often falling 
early ; stipels present ; leaflets broad-ovate in general form, 
acuminate or acute, margins entire, the terminal one promi- 
nently stalked, the lateral ones short-stalked and unequal- 
sided, the lower side being the larger : flowers few on an 
axillary i^eduncle shorter than the petiole, white fading to 
yellowish, violet or lilac, the floral bracts (at the base of 
the pedicels and of calyx) green and broad-oval, i/4 in. long 
more or less ; calyx a small shallow cup covered or subtended 
by the 2 bracts, about i/4 length of the corolla, obscurely 
5-toothed or angled with the longer projection on the under 
side; corolla papilionaceous, the standard bent abruptly 
upward at the middle, broad and sometimes hooded, refuse, the 
wings projecting and between which is the upwardly coiled 
keel ; stamens 9 and 1 ; style within the coil, bearded toward 
the end : pod long and narrow, 4 to 8 in. long and rarely ex- 
ceeding % in. across, curved, the sides nearly parallel, the 
beak slender pointed and curved : seeds 3 to 8, very various 
in size, form, weight and color, lending themselves well to 
the giving of names as if the variations represent species, 



252 



Peas and Beans 



usually less than % or % in. long, those of the Horticultural 
Pole variety weighing between 400 and COO mg. and even 
more; germinating vitality 3 or 4 years. — Nativity en- 
tirely unknown, with the probability of American origin ; 
apparently anciently cultivated by aborigines. Var. nanus, 
Aschers. Fl. Prov. Brandenb. 170. 1864. (P. nanus, Linn. 
Amoen. Acad, iv, 284, 1788.) Bush Bean. Plant low, com- 
pact, not climbing: comprises all the dwarf string beans and 
field beans. 

P. multiflorus, Willd. Hp. PI. iii, 10.30. 1800. (P. vulgaris 
var. coccincus. Linn. Sp. PI, Ed. 2, 1010. 1763. Lipusa multi- 
flora, Alef, Laiulw. Fl. 26, 1866.) Multiflora Bean. Dis- 
tinguished from /*. ri(J(/(iris in lieing ])erennial with a thick- 
ened root, having hypogcal gcnuiiiation, flowers showy and 
many on peduncles that much exceed the petioles or even the 
leaves and prominently pediceled, floral bracts lanceolate or 
linear-lanceolate, pod mostly larger as well as the seed, w^hich 
usually exceeds % or % in. long. — Tropical America. There 
are bush or dwarf varieties. The flowers are very showy in 
the Scarlet Runner, as also in the White Dutch Runner. Seeds 
are often highly colored. 

P. lunatus, Linn. Sp. PI. 724. Sieva or Civet Bean. Prob- 
ably annual, slender; germination epigeal : leaflets short, 
broad-ovate, acuminate or acute, varying to lanceolate or even 
linear-lanceolate: flowers many, small to medium (smaller 
than those of P. vulgaris), on short or long racemes, nearly 
sessile or short-pediceled ; flower bracts small and not con- 
spicuous, narrow: pod 2 to 3^2 in. long, broad and flat, usually 
broadening toward the apex, with a long sharp beak, the 
sides splitting away and twisting when ripe: seeds flat and 
thin, not large, with lines radiating from the hilum or scar. — 
Tropical America. 

Yar. macrocarpus, Benth. Fl. Bras, xv., pt, 1. 181. 1859- 
1862. Lima Bean. A stronger stouter later plant, with large 
thick mostly angled broader leaflets : pods larger, very broad 
and flat, heavy, the point blunt or at least not very prominent : 
seeds very large. — South America. Probably speciflcally dis- 



Botany of Beans 



253 



tinct, and the synonymy needs study. Both th'^ sieva and lima 
are twiners, but there are bush forms. 

The tepary, now offered by seedsmen, is P. acutifolius, 
Gray, var. latifolius, Freeman, Bull. 68, Ariz. Exp. Sta., 5S9, 
1912. It is a slender annual, native in the southwestern U. S. 
and Mexico, grown in hot semi-arid regions as a drought- 
resisting dry shell bean, long cultivated by the Indians and 
Mexicans. On poor land it is dwarf or bush, but on more 
fertile land it makes a long twining vine : germination epigeal : 
as grown in New York from commercial seeds it matures 
in 3% to 4% months, is semi-bush or tall twining, with thin 
slender stems and small leaves : flowers small, white or nearly 
so, 1, 2 or 3 together on very short axillary peduncles : pod 
small, 2^2 to 3 in. long and % in. broad, curved, with nearly 
parallel sides and slender sharp beak : beans about 5, white, 
much like the Navy pea-bean. (The word " tepary " originated 
from the name of this bean among the Papago Indians.) 



CHAPTER X 



SOLAN ACEOUS FRUITS 



Tomato 
Eggplant 



Pepper 
Husk tomato 



Tomatoes and eggplants are hot-season plants. They re- 
quire nearly or quite the entire season in which to mature. 
Usually they grow until hilled hy frost, at least in the 
North, as they are perennials or plur-annuals, and the pro- 
duction of a heavy crop depends largely on securing an 
early start. They are seed-hed crops, and they need abun^ 
dance of quicJi-acting fertilizers applied relatively early in 
their growth. They are grown in hills; that is, not in con- 
tinuous drills. 

These plants are here called solanaeeous fruits because 
they belong to the family Solanaceae. To this family also 
belongs the potato, which is a tuber. Here belong also 
fruits of minor importance, as the tree tomato (Cypho- 
mandra hetacea) and the morelle. The former is a semi- 
woody bush 5 to 10 feet high, bearing egg-shaped tomato- 
flavored fruits about 2 inches long, the second and third 
years from seed; in warm countries grown out of doors 
and in northern parts sometimes raised under glass. The 
latter (morelle) is a form of Solanum nigrum or black 
nightshade, a plant in the wild without edible fruits. 
The cultivated plant has berries larger than a large 
pea. It is an annual of simple culture. In this 



(254) 



Tomatoes and Others 



255 



country it has been known mostly as the garden huckle- 
berry and wonderberry. A related plant but with egg- 
shaped large attractive fruits 4 to 6 inches long is the 
pepino {Solarium muricatum) propagated by cuttings and 
fruiting the first year in the North if started very early. 

TOMATO 

Important points in the culture of tomato are: long 
warm season; " quick " soil with available fertility and 
one that retains moisture; frequent, or at least tivo or 
three transplanting s to obtain stocky and continuous- 
growing plants, particularly at the North; early fruiting 
to mitigate loss from fruit-rot and to secure a heavy crop 
before frost; planting in hills. 

Tomato plants are usually set about 4 to 5 feet each way 
in rich garden soil. In field conditions, they are usually set 
3 to 4 feet. On light and early lands they are sometimes 
planted 3x3 feet. Sow about 14 inch deep. From 1 ounce of 
seed, about 2,000 to 2,500 good plants should be obtained. At 
3x4 feet, an acre requires 3,630 plants. A large yield is 
12 to 16 tons to the acre; the average is much below this; 
1,000 to 1,200 bushels are reported, but this is unusual ; 500 
bushels are frequently produced, but yields in general field 
culture for canning run perhaps 100 bushels an acre. 

Leaf-spot (Septoria lycopersica) . — Circular grayish black 
areas dotted with small black fruiting bodies develop on the 
leaves. As the disease progresses, the affected spots dry while 
the leaves yellow and drop off. Control: Spraying every ten 
days after the plants are set in the field is advisable. Bor- 
deaux mixture to which has been added three pounds of 
resin-fishoil soap to fifty gallons of solution is recommended. 
Applications should be thorough enough to cover all parts of 
the vine. Spraying is generally thought to delay ripening. 



256 



Solanaceous Fruits 



Early blight (Altcrnaria sohini). Late blight {Phytoph- 
thora infestans). — Control: Spray as in the case of septoria 
leaf-spot. 

Leaf-mold {Cladosporium fulnnn). — Irregular areas on the 
leaves bearing on the under surface a purplish green mold 
are characteristic. This is primarily a greenhouse disease. 
Control: Care in ventilating and watering is important. Spray- 
ing with bordeaux, though usually recommended, is of doubt- 
ful value. 

Blossom-end rot. — Affected fruits are marked before matu- 
rity with a sunken blackened area at the blossom end. Con- 
trol: Unfavorable environmental conditions are thought to occa- 
sion this trouble. Maintenance of a uniform water supply 
may reduce its occurrence somewhat. 

Mosaic. — A mottled appearance of the leaves due to alter- 
nate light and dark green areas is characteristic. Affected 
leaves may be curled and abnormal in shape. Control: Dis- 
eased seedlings should be discarded as soon as they appear, 
care being taken in pruning and handling not to go from af- 
fected to normal plants, as the disease is communicable. Con- 
trol of insects is important, as they may serve in disseminating 
the virus. 

Tomato worms (Phlegefliontius quinquemaculata and P. 
scrta). — Large green or brownish caterpillars. 3 or 4 in. long, 
provided with a sharp horn at the hind end of the body. The 
adult is a large ash-gray or brownish gray moth marked with 
irregular brown and lilack lines. The pupa is dark brown, 
about two inches long, and the sucking tuV»e of the future moth 
is enclosed in a separate case and resembles the handle of a 
pitcher. Control: Hand-picking is the most practicable means 
of control. Spray with arsenate of lead (paste). 2 or 3 lbs. 
in 50 gals, water. Spray early, while the caterpillars are still 
small. There is no danger in spraying tomatoes till the fruit 
is half grown. The poison may also be applied in the form 
of a dust. 

Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) . — See 



The Tomato 



257 



under Potato. Fse arsenate of lead instead of paris green 
as it is less likely to injure the foliage. 

Potato aphis {Macrosiphiun solanifolii) . — See under Potato. 

The tomato is a universal favorite and in the United 
States it is a regular and staple crop. It is a major forc- 
ing crop. In most parts of the territory, it is grown out of 
doors with the greatest ease. The soil should be rich but 
not over-supplied with nitrogen, particularly if it becomes 
available late in the season. It is commonly said that very 
rich soil is not to be advised for the tomato. This is prob- 
ably true as respects the heavy application of stable 
manure; it usually gives up its fertility somewhat slowly 
and tends to keep the plant in vigorous growth and to de- 
lay fruiting. If, however, the soil has been made rich by 
previous application of manure, or of available commercial 
fertilizer early in spring, the best results may be expected. 
Experiments at Cornell showed that a rather light single 
application of nitrate of soda about the time the plants are 
set, gives better results than twice that amount applied at 
intervals as late as the middle of 
August (page 382). 

Voorhees gives the following as 
" a mixture very generally used in 
New Jersey" for tomatoes: 100 lbs. 
each of nitrate of soda, sulfate of 
ammonia, dried blood (16% AM), 

n -I -I -I -1 -1 rvA n 1^5- Seeds of tomato (X 4). 

ground lish, ground bone; 1,100 lbs. 

acid phosphate ; 400 lbs. sulfate of potash. " This is un- 
doubtedly an excellent mixture which may be used with 
F-afety in almost any quantity. The usual practice is to use 
from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds to the acre. Many farmers 




258 



Solanaceous Fruits 



claim that the sulfate of ammonia causes some injury to 
the tomato and prefer to double the quantity of blood and 
fish. Whether there is any ground for this claim has 
never been definitely determined.'^ 

The obtaining of a good crop of tomatoes in the North 
depends very largely on having vigorous and stocky plants 
well in advance of the season, and a warm quick soil. The 
plants should be set in the field as soon as the weather is 
settled. Thereafter they need no special care except to 
keep the land well tilled. 

Starting the plants. 

Plants are usually started four to eight weeks before 
they are transplanted to the field. For the home garden 
it is well to handle the young tomato plants in pots ; but in 
commercial operations this is scarcely practicable. The 
custom is to grow them in small flats not more than ten or 
twelve inches square and that hold about two inches of- 
soil. In some cases, even smaller flats or boxes are used. 
In these boxes the plants are displayed in the stores for 
sale to amateur planters. In flats of various sizes, the 



thinned in the flats to stand two or three inches either 
way, or farther than this if the plants are started very 
early. Sometimes the plants are sheared if they become 



146. Young seedlings of tomato (X nearly 




plants can be readily 
handled from the 
frame to the field. In 
commercial business, 
the young tomato 
plants are now rarely 
transplanted. They are 




147. The round "smooth" tomato of the present day (X 



260 



SoJanaceous Fruits 



too tall and " leggy/' although this is not the best practice. 
In the Middle and Southern States, cloth-covered frames 
are often used for starting tomato and other plants. The 
cloth is rolled up in the day. 

In New York, seeds are sown in hotbed or house about 

the middle of March or first 
of April for field culture. 
If sown too early the plants 
become too tall and weak 
and they may be pot-bound. 
A good plant for transplant- 
ing should be short and 
stocky, and in vigorous 
growing condition. Very 
long-stemmed lopping 
plants are sometimes 

148. Pear tomato (X 1/5). , , _ ^ t ,n n 

^ planted deep and the bare 
stem buried slanting; roots will form along the buried 
stem. In Figs. 1-15, 146, the seeds and seedlings are seen. 

Training and pruning. 

Tomatoes usually give earlier and better results when the 
vines are trained ; but the expense of training precludes its 
use in large commercial plantations. The best mode of 
training for early results is to prune the plant to a single 
stem, tying it to a perpendicular cord. The cord is se- 
cured at top and bottom to horizontal strands stretched 
between strong stakes. When tomatoes are thus trained, 
they may be set as close as 18 inches in the row. 

There are various styles of racks for supporting the to- 
mato plants. The best are those that give the plants full 




The Tomato 



261 



exposure to sun and allow all the fruits to hang toward the 
outside of the trellis rather than to be covered by foliage. 

In commercial plan- 
tations, the plants 
are allowed to 
spread as they will, 
although the fruit- 
rot disease is usu- 
ally more serious 
mider such condi- 
tions, particularly 
if the surface soil 
contains much 
coarse manure. 
Pinching - in the 
shoots is thought 
to conduce to early 
bearing. 

Sometimes tomato plants are pruned. On this 
point, F. S. Earle writes as follows (Bull. 108, Ala. 
Exp. Sta.) : "By pruning, 
commercial growers mean the 
pinching out of all lateral 
branches as soon as they ap- 
pear, thus confining the growth 
strictly to one stem. When 
about three clusters of fruit are 
set the vines are topped, thus 
stopping all further growth of 
vine, and turning the energies of the plant entirely to 
the growth and maturing of the fruits that are already 




149. Plum tomato (X %)• 




laO. The tomato of a past 
generation. 



262 



Solanaceous Fruits 




151. A stage in evolution. 



set. The advocates of this system claim that it greatly 
increases the size of the individual fruits and that 
the bulk of the crop ripens several days earlier than 

on unpruned plants. Of 
course each plant produces 
fewer fruits than when al- 
lowed to grow unchecked, 
but this is partly compen- 
sated for by increased size 
and by closer planting that is 
possible on this system, thus 
allowing a greater number of 
plants to the acre. In several 
of the more important to- 
mato-growing regions this system is very widely followed." 

Harvesting and marketing. 

When frost threatens, the largest green tomatoes may 
be picked a n d 
allowed to ripen 
in drawers or in 
other dry and 
close places. Usu- 
ally they color 
well and develop a 
good quality. If 
the fruits have 
not reached their 
full size, the 
whole plant may be pulled and hung in a barn or other dry 
place and the fruits will abstract nourishment from the 
vine and sometimes complete their ripening. 




152. Foliage and flowers of the common 
tomato. Lycopersicon esculentum var. 
commune (X 2/5)- 



The Tomato 



Tomatoes are now grown on a very large scale for can- 
ning factories. They are then a field crop, and are given 
no greater care than corn. A rather light warm soil is 
chosen. Frame-grown plants are used and they may be set 
with a transplanting machine. Thereafter no special treat- 
ment is given the crop except to keep the land well tilled. 
Plants are nsnally spaced 4 feet either way. The yield of 
the " can-house crop " varies 
greatly, from 3 tons to 12 and 
even 14 tons to the acre; 5 to 8 
tons is a good crop. The legal 
weight of a bushel of tomatoes 
runs from 45 to 60 lbs. in dif- 
ferent States; a yield of 8 tons 
is 320 bu. at 50 lbs. 

Harvesting is simple with to- 
matoes. They are hand-picked. 
Eor a near-by market and home 
use, they should be picked fully 
ripe, but for more distant ship- 
ment when they begin to color 
well. They are marketed in 
baskets or crates. If graded and 
of excellent quality and in- 
tended for the best market, the _ 

fruits should be wrapped. Early choice fruit is often sold 
in small splint baskets, like large berry boxes, about four 
or six baskets being contained in a carrier. 

Kinds. 

Varieties run out or vary, and fashions in tomatoes 
change frequently. Because the name of an old variety 




153. Detail of leaf of var. 
commune (X V^)- 



264 



Solanaceous Fruits 



is still in the catalogues, it does not follow that the variety 
itself, as originall}' known, can still be identified. The 
round regular (" smooth ") tomatoes are now almost every- 
where grown (Fig. 147), in contrast to the angular 
wrinkled kinds of many years ago. Leading names at 
present are Stone, Ponderosa, Earliana, Acme. Crimson 




T34. Large-leaved tomato (X 1/5). 155- Upright tomato (X 1/6). 



Cushion, Beauty, Matchless, Dwarf Champion, Golden 
Queen. For preserving, the smaller kinds are grown, as 
Pear, Peach, Plum, Cherry tomatoes (Figs. 148, 149). 
Attention is now given to the breeding of disease-resistant 
varieties. 

The Tomato Plant 
Lycopersicon. SokuiacecT. A dozen or so weak branching 
herbs, perennial and perhaps some of them annual, of South 



Botany of Tomato 



265 



America, of which one or two are grown for food. The 
tomato was cultivated or utilized by American aborigines, but 
it is doubtful whether domestication was really ancient. 

L. esculentum. Mill. Gard. Diet. No. 2. 1768. (Solanum 
Lycopersiciim, Linn. Sp. PI. 185. L. esculentum var. milgare, 
Alef. Landw. Fl., 135. 1866.) Tomato. Diffuse hairy-pubes- 
cent, grayish-green, the branches spreading but ascending, 
herbage strong-scented, perennial or at least plur-annual : 
leaves 6 to 18 in. long, odd-pinnate, leaflets stalked, with 
smaller nearly or quite entire ones Interposed; main leaflets 
alternate or subopposite, 5 to 9, conduplicate or tending to 
curl or roll inward, ovate or oblong, acute or acuminate, bluntly 
toothed or jagged, the base unequal and sometimes with a 
supplementary secondary leaflet on one side: flowers nod- 
ding, 3 to 7 on forking and sometimes leaf -bearing peduncles 
borne near a leaf-insertion but on the opposite side of the 
stem, the yellow corolla % in. and more across ; calyx (much 
enlarging in fruit) green and hairy, cleft nearly to the base 
into 5 or 6 lance-linear acute lobes ; corolla cleft into 5 or 6 
long-pointed narrow lobes about as long as the calyx ; stamens 
5 or 6, with very short filaments, the long yellow green-pointed 
anthers connivent about the style : fruit a succulent red or 
yellow angled compressed berry subtended by the lengthened 
spreading calyx-lobes: seeds obovate, flat, densely hairy, 1/6 
in. or more long, weighing 1 to 3 mg., and holding vitality 
4 or 5 years. — Western South America. The plant here taken 
as the type of the variable species is the tomato of a hun- 
dred years and more ago which bore depressed (endwise flat- 
tened) fruits that were much furrowed or lobed on the sides, 
and presumably with the gray-green herbage, erect shoots and 
conduplicate leaflets that some of the last varieties of this 
old race bore when the writer began to study tomatoes now 
nearly forty years ago. The Large Red tomato, which was 
the prevailing variety 50 years ago, is shown in Fig. 150. 
Miller, in defining the species L. esculentum, described the' 
fruit as " compressed at both ends, and deeply furrowed over 
all the sides." These lobes probably represent the additional 



266 



Solanaceous Fruits 



carpels as the fruit began to enlarge and modifj' itself under 
the stimulus of cultivation. This angular type is passing out 
in the process of selection. The evolution is toward the 
round "smooth" {i.e., not lobed or furrowed) tomato, as in 
Fig. 147. In the process, the intermediate forms, particularly 
common a generation ago, retained the lobing as they began 
to enlarge, resulting in the misshapen fruits shown In Fig. 151. 
Extra carpels are now thrust into the interior of the fruit, 
and the enlargement takes place on all sides, resulting in a 
globular tomato. The flower is modified so that the parts are 
more numerous and the pistil becomes broadened and many- 
celled. Originally the tomato fruit was probably 2-celled. 
The common tomatoes of the present day differ from these 
old ones in character of growth, leafage, and form of fruit, 
and they may be separated as : 

Var. commune (Var. vuhjare, Bailey, Bull. 19, Mich. Agr. 
Coll. 12. 1SS6, not Alef.). Commox Tomato. Plant green 
rather than gray-green due mostly to the leaflets being plane 
rather than " curled," and therefore not presenting the under- 
surface, the shoots and branches on mature plants usually not 
erect : fruit mostly globular or somewhat oblate, not dis- 
tinctly furrowed or lobulate on the sides (Figs. 152, 153). 

Var. grandifolium, Bailey, Bull. 10. Mich. Agr. Coll. 12. 
Large-leaved Tomato. Leaves large and plane, the leaflets 
usually not more than 5, margins entire; secondary leaflets 
Tery few or none. — Here belong the marked varieties known 
as Potato-leaf, Mikado, Turner Hybrid, and others now appar- 
ently lost to cultivation (Fig. 154). 

Var. validum, Bailey, Bull. 19, Mich. Agr. Coll. 12. Lpeight 
Tomato. Plant short, compact, stiff and erect with small 
crowded curled leaves. — Probably not grown in this country 
except as a curiosity, although it has been a parent in breed- 
ing experiments when it was desired to obtain a tomato plant 
that might occupy less room and keep itself within bounds 
(Fig. 155). 

Var. cerasiforme, Alef., Landw. Fl. 135. 1S6S. {L. cerasi- 
forme, Dunal, Hist. Solan., 113. 1S13.) Cherry Tomato. 



Tomato and Eggplant 



267 



Leaves thinner and smaller than in L. esculentum, the leaflets 
usually less acuminate, the shoots or branches rather more 
erect : flowers in longer racemif orm clusters : fruit small, 
few-celled, globular. — Used for preserves, in the red and yel- 
low kinds. Probably nearly or quite the original type of the 
tomato. Var. pyriforme, Alef. 1. c. (L. pyriforme, Dunal, 1. c, 
112). Pear Tomato. Differs in bearing pear-shaped and usu- 
ally somewhat larger fruits (Fig. 148). 

L. pimpinellifolium, Mill. Gard. Diet. No. 4. 1768. {Solanum 
pimpinellifoUum, Linn. Amoen. Acad, iv, 268. 1759.) Cuerant 
Tomato. Weak and diffuse plant, very finely pubescent, not 
hairy, the herbage emitting only a mild odor : leaflets small, 
ovate, the margins obscurely toothed or entire, apex acute 
or obtuse, not acuminate : flowers in elongating 2-sided 
racemes: fruit small, 2-celled, like large red currants (about 
% in. diameter) 10 to 30 or more in the cluster, the acute 
sepal-lobes reflexed : seeds small, smooth. — Peru and probably 
elsewhere in South America. The botanical identity of the' 
cultivated plant needs further consideration. 

EGGPLANT 

Tlie essentials in eggplant culture are practically the 
same as in tomato culture, except that the plant requires a 
still longer season, and greater pains must he taken thai 
the young plants are not checked hut have a continuous 
rapid growth. 

Eggplants are set in rows far enough apart to admit of 
horse tillage, usually 3 to 4 ft. for the large varieties. In 
the rows the plants are set from 18 in. to 3 or 4 ft. A com- 
mon distance is 20 to 24 in., when the rows are spaced at 3 ft. 
The distance is determined largely by the variety. An ounce 
of eggplant seed should give 2,000 to 3,000 strong plants. 

Wilt {Verticilliiim alhoatrum). — Affected plants make a 
stunted growth, and the lower leaves gradually yellow and 
wilt, causing defoliation. Many plants die prematurely. The 
wood of all parts of affected plants in the later stages of the 



268 



Solanaceous Fruits 



disease shows a dark discoloration. Control: Care should lie 
used to avoid introducing the fungus into new fields and crop 
rotation is desirable. 

Phomopsis leaf, fruit and stem disease (Pliomopsis vcx- 
ans). — Irregular gray to brown spots on the leaves, and sunken 
spots on the fruit are covered with the tiny black fruiting 
bodies of the fungus. Slightly sunken cankers occur on the 
stem. Control: Disinfection of the seed with corrosive sub- 
limate 1 to 1,000 has been recommended. Seed is soaked in 
the solution for ten minutes, rinsed at once in running water 
for fifteen minutes and planted immediately. Clean soil in 
the seed-bed and rotation of crops is important. 

Eggplant tortoise beetle {Cassida palUdula) . — A beautiful 
green or greenish yellow tortoise beetle about 1/5 in. long that 
feeds on the foliage. The eggs are laid in groups on the 
underside of the leaves. The larva is armed with branched 
spines and carries a mass of cast skins and excrement over 
its back borne on two long spines. Both larva? and adults 
eat round holes in the leaves and sometimes attack the youn%' 
fruit; restricted to the Southern States. Control: Sprayin;? 
with arsenate of lead (paste), 2 or 3 lbs. in 50 gals, water 
often gives good results. 

Eggplant lace-bug (Gargaphia solani). — A small lace-bug 
about 1/6 in. long, flat, with the prothorax expanded and cov 
ered with a lacework pattern. Botli the young and the aduKs 
puncture the leaves and suck out the .luices. Control: Spray 
with 7 or 8 lbs. whale oil soap in 50 gals, water. 

Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa dccenilincata) . — See 
under Potato. 

Eggplant flea-beetle (Ejntrix fuscula). — This small black 
flea-beetle shows a preference for eggplant. The injury is 
most serious during the first three weeks after transplant- 
ing. Control: After the plants are taken from the seed-bed 
dip the foliage in a 2-3-50 bordeaux mixture. One week or 
ten days after transplanting spray thoroughly with 4-6-50 
bordeaux mixture, to which has been added 4 lbs. of arsenate 
of lead (paste) to each 50 gallons. 



The Eggplant 



269 



Potato aphis (Macrosiphum solanifolii) . — See under Potato. 

Spinach aphis (Myzus persiccc). — See under Spinach. 

Red-spider {Tctr^anyclms telarius). — Minute yellowish, green 
or reddish mites often attacli the foliage both in the seed- 
beds and in the field, giving the leaves a whitish, blistered 
appearance. They sometimes kill the plants. Control: Many 
of the mites may be destroyed by washing the plants with 
a strong stream of water from a hose. Apply tobacco dust 
in the evening and drench the plants with water the next 
morning, then close the frames and allow them to remain 
closed for six or eight hours. Apply the treatment on alter- 
nate days until all the mites are killed. When they occur 
in the field, spray the fields thoroughly every few days with : 

Nicotine sulfate 5 oz. 

Fishoil soap 4 lbs. 

Water 50 gals. 

The eggplant, known also as Guinea squash in the 
Southern States, is emphatically a hot-climate crop. It is 
grown in the South to a large extent as a commercial crop 
and even as far north as New Jersey and Long Island. In 
the Northernmost States, it is grown mostly for home use. 
It demands a long season, a warm 
loose and fairly dry soil. It is not 
adapted to clay lands. 

The exposure should be warm and 
sunny. The land should not he as 
moist as that best adapted to early 
peas, beets and other cool-season i56. seeds of eggplant 
things. The ground should be rich 

also, but whatever fertilizer is added should be quickly 
available so that the maturity of the crop may not be 
delayed. Take every precaution to forward the crop 
in order to secure it before the closing of the season, par- 




270 



Solanaceous Fruits 




ticularly in the Northern States. The ground should be 
kept in thorough tillage from first to last. 

The plants are started under glass, and they should be 
6 or 8 inches high and thrifty and stocky 
when placed in the field. In the Northern 
States the plants may be even larger than this 
Avhen transplanted. It is important, however, 
that the plant receives no check from the 
germination of the seed to the setting of the 
157. Young egg. f rult. If thc plauts in the forcing-house or 
plant (X /2). become crowded and stunted, and 

the stems begin to harden, the crop will be much lessened. 
For home use, and sometimes for special market conditions, 
it is advisable to handle the young plants in two-inch or 
three-inch pots. They then suffer no check when taken to 
the field. 

The fruits are fit for eating from the time they are one- 
third grown until they are nearly or quite fully ripe. Even 
after the fruits have reached their full size and color, they 
may remain on the plant for a time without much de- 





158. Flowers of eggplant, front and back (X %)• 

terioration, although a very ripe fruit is worthless. A 
heavier crop may be secured by taking off the fruits before 
they reach their full size. It is necessary, however, that 



The Eggplant 



271 



they be well colored in order to find sale in the market, 
and usually, also, the fruits of fair or rather large size 
sell best. In the N'orthernmost States the gardener is sat- 
isfied if he averages two or three good fruits to a plant of 
the large varieties. 

The fruits are large and heavy, and they should be 
handled with care 
even though they are 
not perishable as are 
tomatoes. They may 
be cut from the plants 
with a knife, the large 
calyx being left on the 
fruit. They are usu- 
ally handled in crates ; 
in special cases, indi- 
vidual fruits are 
wrapped. 

The New York Im- 
proved, the Black Pe- 
kin and Black Beauty 
are leading commer- 
cial types. Good-sized 
marketable fruits of 
these varieties are 6 to 
9 inches in diameter. Unless started very early and given 
a warm place and quick soil, however, these varieties are 
not likely to yield much before frost in the most northern 
States. In these short-season climates, some of the dwarf 
varieties, particularly the Early Dwarf Purple, are to be 
advised. The white eggplants are not popular^ since the 




Eggplant of the improved purple type (Black 
Beauty) (X %). 



272 



Solanaceous Fruits 



color is ■usually of a yellowish cast. There are varieties 
with striped fruits and others with long and coiling fruits, 
but these are known mostly as curiosities. 

Eggplant has been grown from the earliest times. It is 
probably native to India. It is a low spreading bushy more 
or less hairy and spiny herb (or subshrub), with large 
blue flowers. It is known as aubergine by the French. 
Interesting parts of the plant are shown in Figs. 156 
to 159. 

The Eggplants 

Solanum. See page 21."). The eggplant is a puzzling bo- 
tanical subject. Its uativitj' and its origin are both unknown. 
The cultivated forms are in need of thorough botanical study 
in both field and herbarium. 

S. Melongena, Linn., var. esculentum, Xees. Trans. Linn. 
Soc. xvii, 48. 1S32. {8. esculoitum, Dnnal, Hist. Solan. 208. 
1813.) Cultivated EcorLANT. A bushy leafy erect plant, 
2 to 3 ft., gray-tomentose, or more or less scurfy : stem 
angled or furrowed, sometimes spiny : leaves alternate, 6 to 15 
in. long, oblong, oval or ovate in outline, thick, stout-petioled, 
unequal at base, obtusely angled or lobed, apex acute or 
obtuse, commonly bearing spines on petiole, midrib and main 
veins, but sometimes spineless : flowers mostly single, oppo- 
site or subopposite the leaves, inclined or nodding, very large 
(1% to 2 in. across) in the commercial varieties, violet with 
lighter band in the center of the lobe, on a stout and length- 
ening jointed peduncle; calyx usually prickly, parted about 
half its length into 5 to 7 narrow pointed green lobes, the 
tube angled ; corolla-limb rotate, with 5 to 7 acute lobes, the 
margins thin and more or less crinkled; stamens 5 to S, 
attached to the corolla-tube, filaments very short, the long 
yellow anthers erect around the short style; ovary globular- 
conical, more or less hairy, particularly about the top, many- 
small-celled : fruit a large pendent terry, 2 or 3 in. to 1 ft. 
long, purple, yellowish, white or striped, smooth and shining, 



Eggplant and Peyper 



273 



held by tlie greatly elongated hard pedimcle and the immensely 
enlarging calyx : seeds numerous on many central placentje 
imbedded in lines in the flesh of the fruit, round kidney-shaped, 
flat, smooth and shining, with many minute pits, in. or 
more long, ^Yeighing 2 to A mg., retaining vitality 5 to 8 years. 
Yar. serpentinum, Bailey, Bull. 26, Cornell Exp. Sta., 25. 1S91. 
{S. serpentiniun, Desf. Hort. Par. Ed. 3, 115, name only. 
1829.) Snake Eggplant. Differs in the fruit, which is long 
and slender, 12 in, and more long and 1 in. or less in diameter, 
curling at the end. 

Yar. depressum, Bailey, Bull. 26, Cornell Exp. Sta. 25. 
Dwarf Eggplant. Plant small and weak, spreading or even 
decumbent rather than erect, nearly or quite smooth and the 
growing parts often purplish, spineless except sometimes on 
peduncle and calyx : leaves small and thin, undulate and 
sinuate but scarcely lobed, nearly or quite smooth, the blade 
2 to 6 in. long : flowers small, long-peduncled : fruit pear- 
shaped and perhaps oblong, 4 to 5 in. long, purple. — A race 
of good short-season small eggplants, very distinct in habit and 
foliage. 

(The word " Melongena " is an old substantive, perhaps com- 
pounded with the Greek for apple.) 

PEPPER OR CAPSICUM 

Peppers require the treatment advised for tomatoes and 
eggplants, hut they thrive in a rather cooler season and will 
endure some frost, although hest results are obtained in a 
tvarm climate. Some of the varieties mature in a relatively 
short season. 

Seeds are started indoors or in hotbed, and transplanted 
once (and preferably twice) before setting in the field. Sow 
seeds about in. deep. Plants may stand 8 to 18 in. In the 
row, depending on variety ; rows may be far enough asunder 
to allow of horse tillage (2 to 2% ft.) or closer for hand 
tillage. One ounce of seed should produce 1,500 to 2,000 plants. 



Solanaceoua Fruits 



Plants should be in full crop in 120 to 150 days from seed. 
An acre may yield upwards of 3U.000 good fruits. 

Cercospoka leaf-spot {Cercospora capcici) . — Circular gray- 
ish brown spots with dark borders and gray centers are 
characteristic. Seriously affected leaves wilt and defoliation 
may occur. Control: Disinfection of the seed with corrosive 
sublimate 1 to 1,000 has been recommended. Seed should be 
immersed in the solution for ten minutes and then rinsed 
at once in running water for about fifteen minutes and planted 
immediately. Seed should be sown in disease-free soil; and 
plants in the seed-bed and soil may be sprayed with bordeaux 
mixture. 

Peppers are attacked by the potato aphis, flea-beetle and 
potato beetle: see under Potato; also by the spinach aphis: 
see under Spinach. 



The pepper (often called "red pepper/^ although there 
are yellow-, black- and white-fruited varieties) is a Cap- 




(X 211). 161. Young pepper plants (X 



sicum, the common garden forms now being referred to 
one species, C. annuum. It is very distinct from the pepper 
of commerce, which is the fruit of Piper nigrum, of an- 
other family. Part of the demand is for the making of 
mixed pickles and for seasoning, and for this purpose the 
Cayenne, Chilli, Tobasco and Cranberry varieties are 
grown. These are the " hot " or pungent varieties. The 



The Pepper 



275 




large " sweet peppers," of the Sweet Mountain, Chinese, 
Neapolitan, Pimiento and Ruby King type, are used for the 
dish known as 
" stuffed peppers," 
for sweet pickles 
and in other ways. 
Figs. 160 to 163 
show the pepper 
from seed to fruit. 

The plants are 
started in frames, 
usually in boxes, as 
are tomatoes and 

eo'gplantS Care branch of capsicum (X 1/3)- 

must be taken to keep the plants growing continuously, 
else they may not mature a full crop in short-season cli- 
mates. Dealers usually sell pepper plants, ready for the 
garden. 

For culinary purposes, the peppers are picked when 
about full grown but before they are colored. The fruits 
are often known in the market as " green peppers." For- 
merly little seen, they are now a common article in shops, 
and the culture of them, in a restrict-ed way, is sometimes 
distinctly profitable. The hot kinds, or chillies, are usually 
allowed to color before being picked. Peppers are mar- 
keted in splint baskets, hampers and ventilated barrels. 

The Pepper Plants 
Capsicum. Solanacecp. Exceedingly variable plants, mostly 
of Central and South America, by some reviewers thought to 
be forms of one or two species and by others considered to 
be 30 or more; herbs and small shrubs. 



276 



Solatmceous Fruits 



Co an nu urn, Linn. Sp. PI. 188. Red Peppee. Biennial or per- 
ennial, grown in gardens mostly as an annual, erect, 1 to 3 
ft., branching, herbaceous or becoming woody at base, glabrous 
or minutely pubescent : leaves alternate and often clustered, 
simple and entire, long-petioled, mostly acuminate at apex, 
various in shape from broad-ovate to elliptical and short- 
acuminate to lanceolate and long-acuminate : fls. white or 
violet-tinted, solitary or 2 or 3 together, stout-peduncled in 




163. BeU pepper (X 1/6)- 



the axils, usually decidedly inclined or declined but some- 
times erect, % to 1% In. across; calyx short, shallowly 5- or 
more-lobed ; corolla much exceeding calyx, expanding or rotate. 



Botany of tJie Pepper 



277 



deeply and acutelj' 5-lobed (but with more lobes in some of the 
cultivated forms) ; stamens normally 5 (often 6 or 7), the 
bluish anthers separate and erect and surrounding the single 
straight central style, filaments equalling or exceeding the 
anthers and attached on the base of the corolla ; ovary globu- 
lar, about equalling the calyx, 2- to 3-celled : fruit a dryish 
or somewhat succulent many-seeded pod-like berry of many 
sizes and shapes, erect or declined, usually scarlet or yellow 
(sometimes black) when ripe: seeds flat and smooth, light col- 
ored, circular in outline with a hollowed projecting base on 
one side, those of the large bell peppers about in- across 
and weighing 5 to S mg. ; vitality 3 to 5 years. — Probably 
tropical American and now spontaneous in many countries, 
not certainly known as a wild plant ; probably not of very 
ancient cultivation. Some of the many forms of the culti- 
vated plant may be grouped briefly as follows: Yar. grossum, 
Sendtner in Martins, Fl. Bras, x, 147. 1846-1856. (C. grossum, 
Linn. Manti. i, 47. 1767.) Bell Pepper. Comprises the bell 
and bullnose sweet peppers : plants stout and tall, with large 
oblong-ovate leaves 4 or 5 in. long, flowers about 1 in. or 
more across, bearing very large usually puffy hanging fruits 
with a depression or basin at base and apex blunt, often fur- 
rowed at the sides. Yar. longum, Sendt., Fl. Bras, x, 147. 
Long Pepper. Large-leaved stout plant, with peppers 3 to 12 
in. long and narrow, sometimes 2 in. thick at base. Black 
Nubian, Long Red, Long Yellow, Elephant's Trunk, Ivory Tusk, 
are varieties in this group. Yar. acuminatum, Fingerhut, 
Monogr. Caps., 13. 1832. Chilli. Differs from var. longum 
in being a smaller and less coarse plant with smaller leaves, 
and the usually curved fruit very slender, % in. or less thick 
and % to 4% in. long, erect or declined. Long Cayenne and 
Chilli peppers belong here. Yar. fasciculatum, Irish, 9th Rep. 
Mo. Bot. Card. 68, 1898. (C. fasciculatum, Sturtevant, Bull. 
Torr. Club, xv, 133. 1888.) Red Cluster. Plant compact, with 
narrow clustered leaves and erect clustered slender very hot 
fruit which is about 3 in. long and i/l in. thick. Yar. conoides, 
Irish, 9th Rep. Mo. 65. (C. conoides, Mill Gard. Diet No. 1. 



278 



Solanaceous Fruits 



1768.) Cayenne or Short Cayenne. Plant becoming woody, the 
leaves many and mostly small, 2-3 in. long: fruit erect, 
nearly conical to short-cylindrical, in. or less long, very 
hot. Tobasco and Coral Gem are of this race. Var. cerasi- 
forme, Irish, 9th Kept. Mo. 92. (C. cerasiforme, Mill. Diet. 
No. 5.) Cheery Pepper. Becoming woody, leaves of inter- 
mediate size, ovate or oblong, 2 or 3 in. long : fruit erect or 
declined, spherical or oblong-spherical, % in. or less thick, 
very hot. 

HUSK TOMATO 

Two or three species of Physalis are cultivated as husk 
tomato and strawberry tomato. They are very diffuse or 
even decumbent hairy herbs that produce a yellowish often 
glutinous berry inside a papery husk (enlarged calyx). 
There are several native species, some of which are known 
as "ground cherry." The soft sweetish fruits are some- 
times used for preserves and pickles, or they may be eaten 
raw or cooked. It is a worthy plant. 

The plants are of the easiest cultivation. In the North 

it is preferable to start 
seeds in frames and 
transfer to the open 
ground, in order to ma- 
ture the largest crop of 
fruit. The plants 
spread widely and 
should be given abun- 
dant room, 2 or 3 feet 

164. Husk tomato (X 

apart being none too 
much if, in fact, sufficient for best results. The berries 
will keep all winter if put away dry in their husks. 




Botany of Huslc Tomato 



279 



The husk tomato is considered to be Physalis pubescens, 
Linn. Sp. PI. 183, native in North America and other parts 
of the world. The cultivated plant is mostly a spreading 
annual but sometimes grows erect, pubescent, much branch- 
ing : leaves ovate and mostly acuminate, more or less pubes- 
cent, oblique or semi-cordate at base, margins obtusely den- 
tate or angled : flowers single, % in. or less long, yellowish 
with brown spots inside, the calyx much shorter than the 
corolla but enlarging in fruit and inclosing the globular yellow 
berry, which is % in, across. The Cape gooseberry is P. peru- 
viana, Linn. Sp. PI. Ed. 2, 1670. 1763. It is a taller and later 
plant, not maturing well in the Northern States; leaves soft- 
pubescent, broad, not toothed, cordate at base; husk larger 
and somewhat hairy. Other species of Physalis are cultivated. 



CHAPTER XI 



THE CUCURBITS 

Cucumber Pumpkin 
Muskmelon Squash 
Watermelon 



The ciicurhits are annuals, groivn for their fruits; they 
are tender to frost, and require a warm season and a full 
exposure to sun; they are long-season crops and with most 
of them a quick start is essential in order that they may 
mature the crop before frost; they are groivn in hills, as a 
main crop, planted in the field or in frames, depending on 
the region and the period at wliich the crop is wanted; 
they transplant with difficulty tvhen the roots are dis- 
turbed, and if the plants are started in advance of the sea- 
son they are grown in pots, boxes or on sods. 

The name " cucurbit " was emplo3'ecl by the writer many 
years ago for the horticultural designation of these plants 
of the Cucurbitacese, and the word has become current. 
Subsequently, the late Dr. B. D. Halsted proposed the 
shorter name " cucurb/' but it appears not to have come 
into use. The cucurbits constitute a very natural group, 
both botanically and culturally. . 

Several other cucurbits aside from those listed at the 
head of this chapter are in cultivation in this country for 
food. The true gourds, Lagenaria leucantha {Cucurbita 

(280) 



Cucurhitous Plants 



281 



Lagenaria, Linn.), are grown mostly as arbor covers^ and 
for the great hard-shelled fruits from which dippers and 
other utensils are fashioned; the young fruits are some- 
times eaten in other countries, but probably not here. 

The dish-cloth gourds or vegetable sponges, two spe- 
cies of Luffa, are in cultivation as curiosities and for the 
fibrous interior, which is used, when dried and macerated, 
as a sponge. The young fruit may be eaten when cooked 
or dried, but it is scarcely known as a kitchen-garden 
product in this country. Lufa acutangula, with ridged 
fruits, is apparently more commonly cultivated in this 
country than L. cijlindrica. 

Of late years, Benincasa liispida, the wax gourd of the 
Orient, has been introduced as the Chinese preserving 
melon. It is used for the making of preserves and sweet 
pickles. The fruit is the size of a watermelon, hairy, and 
usually has a waxy covering. Cultivation is as for musk- 
melon. 

The balsam apple {Momordica Balsamina) and balsam 
pear (M. Charantia) are very ornamental climbers with 
divided leaves and warty small fruits that split open and 
curl when ripe ; they are common on porches and arbors 
far South, and the young fruits are edible. Their use in 
this country, except among the Chinese, seems to be for 
ornament only. 

The chayote or christophine (SecMum edule) is grown 
in Florida and the tropics for its cucumber-flavored fruit. 
It is an odd plant, the fruit bearing only one seed, which 
is very large. 

There are no fundamental differences in the cultivation 
of the various cucurbitous crops. They are all very ten- 



282 



The Cucurhits 



der to frost and they usually grow, at least in the Xorth, 
till overtaken by frost or disease. They all demand light 
and very quick soil. Success lies in gaining an early start 
and in not allowing the plants to suffer a check. The one 
place at which most people fail in growing these crops is 
that the young plants do not secure a quick hold. This is 
usually due to the fact that the soil is not thoroughly well 
prepared or is not warm and well drained, and there is not 
sufficient available fertilizer within reach of the young 
plant. In the North, this quick start is exceedingly im- 
portant, since the season is so short that every day must 
be made to count. In cucumbers, the quick start is not so 
important as in melons and squashes, since the plants come 
into bearing earlier. Many fields of squashes in the North 
are lost because the plants do not get to work before July 
or August, and then the dry weather comes and the bloom- 
ing is delayed so long that the young fruits are caught by 
frost. 

The land should l)e given the best of surface tillage. 
The plants and the fruits are succulent and need much 
moisture, and if this moisture is lost in the spring through 
lack of proper preparation of the land and neglect of sur- 
face tillage, a good crop may be impossible, even though 
the subsequent tillage is perfect. The land should also 
contain sufficient humus or vegetable matter to hold a 
good supply of moisture. 

It is ordinarily best to have the plants so vigorous that 
several fruits set simultaneously. If one fruit sets two or 
three weeks in advance of the others, it is likely to consume 
so much of the energy of the vine that the subsequent 
fruits remain small. In fact, it may be well to pick 



Squashes, Melons and Others 283 



off the first fruit if it sets much in advance of the main 
crop. 

Although the land should be rich, the fertility should be 
available early in the season rather than late, else the 
growth may be delayed too long. Lands very rich in nitro- 
genous materials may cause the plants to grow to vine 
at the expense of fruit. If there seems to be a tendency 
to go to vine, it is good practice to pinch off the ends of 
the leading shoots. Usually, however, this practice is not 
necessary unless the season is very short. 

All cucurbits are grown in hills. Each hill ma}^ 
be specially prepared, at least in the Northern States and 
on land that is rather hard and coarse. A space one or 
two feet across is spaded up loosely, and light loose earth 
and scrapings from the barnyard are mixed with it. A 
handful of fertilizer should be scattered in the soil. If the 
land is hard and late, it is well to remove the soil and to 
fill the space with fine earth and manure. In the warm 
and light melon lands of the South, where the seasons are 
longer, this precaution may not be necessary; nor is it 
practiced in the usual field culture of the crops. 

Squashes, watermelons and cucumbers are usually 
planted in the field, although if early results are wanted 
and if the region is cold and the season short, it is well 
to start them in frames. Muskmelons are usually started 
in frames. It is advisable to plant the seeds on in- 
verted sods, in small boxes or other receptacles; or in 
regular flower-pots, which are best. (See page 357.) It is 
imperative that the plants be stocky and firm when taken 
to the field, although they must not be stunted. If they 
liave been grown too warm and are " soft,'^ they will be in- 



384 



The Cucurbits 



jured by the sun and winds when transplanted, and will 
be later than plants started directly in the field. 

The young plants are likely to be ruined by the attacks 
of the striped beetle and other enemies. It is important, 
therefore, that the seed be sown freely. If one-fourth or 
one-fifth of the plants escape their enemies, the grower 
may consider himself fortunate. In some cases growers 
plant pumpkin or squash seeds in the field very early to 
attract the striped beetle where they may be killed, and 
the later frame-grown melon or cucumber plants are then 
relatively safe. 

CUCUMBER AND GHERKIN 

Hills of cucumber are usually made about 4x4 or 4x5 
feet ; sometiiiies they are 4 x (>, for the large late varieties, 
or even 6 ft. either way in extensive field culture. At 4 x 4 
feet, 2,722 hills are contained on an acre. Four or five plants 
are allowed to remain in each hill. About two pounds of seeds 
are calculated to plant an acre, or 1 ounce for 70 to 80 hills. 
Seed may be planted about % in. deep. If the striped bugs 
are bad, plant heavily. An average acre should yield 100 
bushels for pickling. Under the best conditions, 400 and 500 
bushels of pickling cucumbers are raised to the acre. 

Bacterial wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilu-s) . — Affected plants 
droop and wilt within a short time. If a stem is cut across, 
sticky ooze will adhere to the finger and can be drawn out 
into thin threads. Certain biting insects of cucumbers are 
largely responsible for the spread of the bacteria causing this 
disease. Control: Spraying with bordeaux mixture and lead 
arsenate powder (4-5-50-2) to keep the plants free of the 
striped beetles is recommended. Applications ' should begin 
soon after the plants are started and should continue at 
about weekly intervals until insects are no longer present. 
Removal and destruction of affected plants is desirable. Dust- 
ing the plants with almost any dust mixture is also effective. 



The Cucumher 



285 



Mosaic. — Affected fruits may have raised areas and present 
a mottled appearance due to the presence of alternate green 
and yellow places. Leaves may exhibit a similar mottling. 
Control: The control measures recommended for bacterial 
vv'ilt will aid in keeping this disease in check, as the virus 
is apparently distributed by insects. 

Downy Mildew (Plasmopora cuhensis) . — Somewhat angu- 
lar yellowish spots appear and under favorable conditions 
spread rapidly, resulting in the death and drying of affected 
leaves. Control: Spraying with bordeaux mixture, if begun 
as soon as runners begin to form and repeated every week or 
ten days throughout the season, will afford good control. 

Angulae leaf-spot {Bacterium lachrymans) . — This dis- 
ease is characterized by the production on the leaves of sharply 
angular spots bordered by the larger veinlets. The spots are 
at first water-soaked, later turning brown. Dead parts in old 
leaves may break away, causing a somewhat ragged appear- 
ance. The disease is evident on the stem as elongated lesions. 
Small water-soaked spots, circular and with white centers, 
may appear on the fruits. Control: Seed treatment with 
corrosive sublimate 1-1,000 for five minutes has been recom- 
mended. Spraying with bordeaux mixture as recommended 
for other cucumber diseases will hold this leaf-spot in check. 

Antheacnose (Colletotrichum lagenarium). — See Water- 
melon, page 296. 

Steiped cucumbee beetle (Diahrotica vittata). — A small 
yellow black-striped beetle, i/l in. long, that attacks cucumber 
plants when they first come up, devouring the leaves and eat- 
ing holes in the stem. The eggs are laid on the ground. 
The larva is a slender white grub, in. long, that burrows 
In the roots, sometimes causing the plants to wither and die. 
Control: In the home garden- the plants may be protected 
by cheesecloth or mosquito-netting screens. In the field, spray 
the plants as soon as they come up with arsenate of lead 
(paste), 4 lbs. in 50 gals, of water. Although the beetles 
will not eat much of the poison, it serves to drive them 
away. It is better to use arsenate of lead for this purpose 



286 



Tim Cucurbits 



than bordeaux mixture, as the latter stunts the young plants. 
It is always well to plant an excess of seed and to use fish 
scrap fertilizer to make the plants grow rapidly. Tobacco 
dust or air-slaked lime and land plaster are of value as 
deterrents. 

Squash bug (Anasa t?^istis). — A dirty brownish black bug 
% in. long, with a highly offensive odor. The adults come 
out of hibernation and attack the plants as soon as they come 
up. They puncture the stems and petioles, sometimes kill- 
ing the plants outright. The brownish eggs are deposited 
on the underside of the leaves and hatch in one or two weeks. 
The young bugs are nearly white and covered with a mealy 
substance. They puncture the leaves, causing them to wilt 
and turn brown. Control: The adult bugs are very resistant 
to contact sprays. Practice clean farming and thus reduce 
to a minimum hibernating shelter. After the crop is har- 
vested, the vines should be raked up and burned. After the 
ground has been seeded, but before the plants are up, many of 
the over-wintered adults can be trapped under boards laid on 
the ground. Then all adults noticed on the young plants 
should be hand-picked, the eggs should be crushed or scraped 
off with a knife, and the young nymphs may be killed by 
spraying with " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco extract, 1 part in 400 
parts of water in which enough soap has been dissolved to 
give a good suds. 

Squash-vine borer (Melittia satiiriniformis) . — A white 
brown-headed caterpillar, 1 in. long when mature, that bores 
in the stems of squash, pumpkin, cucumber, and melon. The 
aduUt is a moth having an expanse of about one inch. The 
front wings are nearly black and the hind wings are trans- 
parent. The eggs are deposited on the stems of the vine. On 
hatching the young borer burrows into the stem and then 
eats out a tunnel through the pith, often causing the death 
of the vine. Confrol: Practice a short rotation of crops. 
Do not grow susceptible crops year after year in the same 
field. Collect and destroy all vines after crop is har- 
vested. Early squashes are sometimes planted as a trap crop 



The Cucumber 



287 



around the field and between the rows of late varieties. The 
moths lay their eggs on the early plants, which should be pulled 
up and destroyed as soon as the early squashes are har- 
vested. Some growers make a practice of covering the stem 
with earth two or three feet from the base in order that 
the vine may throw out a new root system which will 
sustain the plant in case the main stem is injured at the 
base. 

Pickle worm (Diaphania nitidalis). — Restricted as a pest 
to the Southern States; the yellowish-white caterpillars, 
marked with numerous dark spots, are about % in. long when 
mature. In the last stage the spots are lost. The adult is 
a moth with yellowish brown wings marked with large irregu- 
lar central spots of semi-transparent yellow. The eggs are 
laid on the flower buds and tender opening leaves. At first 
the la r Vie feed on the blossoms or buds but later burrow into 
the fruit, often causing decay to result. Control: Spraying to 
control this pest • has been unsuccessful. Clean farming and 
the destruction of the vines after the crop is harvested will 
help to decrease the number the following year. Waste fruits 
and fallen leaves should also be destroyed. A short rotation 
and the planting of a crop at a distance from fields infested 
the previous year has not been found of much value as the 
moths fly well from field to field. Much injury may be 
avoided by planting early so as to have the crop mature before 
the larvie become abundant. 

Melon aphis (ApJiis gossypii). — A yellowish or greenish 
plant-louse that often occurs in great numbers on the under- 
side of the leaves. In the winged forms the head and most 
of the thorax is black. Control: Fumigation of the young 
plants with tobacco or carbon bisulfide may be practised in the 
garden. In large fields spraying is more practicable. The 
vines should be trained to run in rows. Spray with " Black 
Leaf 40" tobacco extract, % pint in 100 gallons of water in 
which 5 or 6 pounds of soap have been dissolved. The first 
application should be made as soon as the lice appear. A fine 
nozzle with suflicient pressure should be used to give a fine 



288 



The Cucurbits 



mist. Use a short extension-rod and an upturned nozzle 
so as to liit tlie underside of the leaves. 

Gaeden springtail (Sminthiirus hortemis) . — Adult cucum- 
ber plants are often badly injured, especially' in the South, 
by a minute wingless jumping insect about 1/20 in, in length. 
It is dark purple, spotted with yellow. Control: Dust the 
plants with tobacco dust or air-slaked lime when they first 
come up and repeat the application in about a week if the 
insects are still present. 

The cucumber is a staple garden and truck crop, of easy 
culture when the simple conditions are met and the diseases 
and pests are avoided or under control. In general prac- 



tice, the seeds are planted directly where the crop is to 
mature, but early and choice crops are grown from plants 
started in frames or forcing-houses on inverted sods or 
turves, in berry boxes that soon decay, in pots or in knock- 
do^vn boxes. Cucumber is a prime forcing crop for winter 
and spring; for amateur work, the English forcing varie- 
ties may be used, but the White Spine type is mostly grown 
under glass for market in this country. 
• Stages in the cucumber plant are shown in Figs. 165, 
166, 167. In the last figure, a fruit is sho^^^l and also 
staminate (or male) flowers, which in the field are more 
numerous than the pistillate (or fertile) flowers. 



165. Seeds of cucumber 
(X 1 2/3). 





166. Young cucumber plants (X about %). 



Tlie Cucumber 



289 



The quality of cucumbers depends on the variety, vigor 
of the plant, when picked, and how kept and handled in 
transportation. The notion that cucumbers are spoiled 
by muskmelons planted near, and vice versa, is erroneous. 
Carefully selected seed should be obtained. 

Since the fruits of cucumbers are used when young, the 
productivity of the plants may be greatly enhanced by 
picking the fruits as soon as they are fit. The patch 




167. Cucumber of the White Spine type (X about 1/3). 



should be gone over every two or three days at least, and 
if the area is large, it should be picked over every day. 
If one fruit is allowed to ripen it may prevent the setting 
of other fruits. If seeds of cucumbers are desired, it is 
best to reserve a few hills specially for that purpose. 



290 



The Cucurbits 




168. Seeds of Cucumis 
Anguria (X about 3). 



Cucumbers for the main or pickling crop are usually 
grown from seeds planted directly in the fields when 
frost is past ; sometimes they are in two or three plantings, 
up to even the first or middle of July. 
Cucumbers do not require as much heat 
as melons. 

Sometimes cucumbers are grown as 
a companion crop, beans or lettuce 
being raised between the hills or rows. 
When the cucumbers begin to run 
strongly they should have the whole ground. 

While land for cucumbers should be fertile, raw manures 
should not be used, unless applied in autumn or early 
spring and thoroughly incorporated with the soil. Very 
heavy applications of nitrogen are thought to send the 
plants too much to vine and to delay fruiting. 

For very early, some of the small-fruited cucumbers 
may be planted, as Early Russian, Early 
Cluster, Cool and Crisp. For midseason 
and late, the White Spine, in various 
strains, is the standard. Giant Pera, 
Nichol Medium Green and Tailby are 
older favorites. 

Gherkins are very small immature cu- 
cumbers, used for pickles. The name is 
also applied to the small prickly fruits of 
Cucumis Anguria, a species known as the 
West Indian or burr cucumber. This is 
sometimes cultivated, and its fruits are used for pickles. 
It is grown in every way as is the ordinary cucumber. 
Seeds and seedling are seen in Figs. 168, 169. 




Seedling of 
C. Anguria. 
(X 2/3). 



The Cucumber and Melon 



291 



For table use (slicing), cucumber fruits should be 
6 inches or more long, green, fresh and plump. All cucum- 
bers, whether for slicing or pickles, are picked before they 
begin to turn yellow. For good markets, the cucumbers 
should be graded to shape and size. They are marketed 
in baskets, crates, and hampers. 

MELON 

Four by six feet is a customary distance for the hills of 
muskmelons, making 1,185 hills to the acre. The quantity of 
seed required is about the same as for cucumber. Sometimes 
two crops are grown on the same land, a very early and a 
main-season crop. The early crop is planted 4x5 feet, and two 
or three weeks later the main crop is planted between. Three 
or four good fruits to the plant is a good yield. Seeds are cov- 
ered about % in., or somewhat deeper if planted directly in 
the field. 

The melon is affected by wilt, mildew and mosaic, for which 
see the account under Cucumber ; and by anthracnose, treated 
under Watermelon. 

Striped cucumber beetle (Dial)rotica vitfata). — See under 
Cucumber. The beetles not only attack the young plants but 
later in the season destroy the young blossoms. Control: In 
small gardens screen the young plants. Fish scrap fertilizer 
not only forces the growth of the plants but has a tendency 
to keep the beetles away. Air-slaked lime, tobacco and sul- 
fur have a decidedly deterrent effect. Sow an excess of seed and 
thin the plants after the danger from the insects has passed. 

Garden springtail (Sminthurus hortensis). — See under Cu- 
cumber. Apply tobacco dust, fish scrap or air-slaked lime just 
as the plants are coming above the ground. Repeat a week 
later. Sow an excess of seed, cultivate frequently and apply 
quick acting fertilizers to help the plant outgrow the injury. 

Southern corn root-worm {Diahrotica duodecimpunc- 
tata) . — A yellowish green beetle, i/4 in. long, with twelve black 
spots on the wing-covers. The beetles are often destructive to 
cucumbers and melons which they attack in much the same 



292 



The Cucurbits 



way as the striped cucumber lieetle. Control: Same as for 
the striped cucumber beetle (page 2S5). 

Melon worm {Diaphania Jnjaliuata) . — The adult is a moth 
with pearly white wings, marlied with a shining iridescent 
brown band along the front and outer margins. The eggs are 
laid on the young buds, leaves and stems of the vines. When 
full grown the caterpillar is about 1 in. long and mottled green- 
ish yellow. When partly grown it is yellowish or greenish 
with two white stripes on the back. The first brood of cater- 
pillars feeds mostly on the foliage and does not cause much 
injury to the fruit. The larvse of the later generations feed 
at first on the buds or foliage and then attack the fruit, feed- 
ing on the surface and burrowing through the rind, causing 
decay. Control: Plant summer squashes ahead of the main 
crop to serve as a trap. Spray with arsenate of lead (paste). 
3 lbs. in 50 gals, water or bordeaux mixture. As soon as the 
crop is harvested, vines and waste fruits should be gathered 
up and destroyed. 

The melon (or muskmelon) is a prevailing inhabitant of 
the vegetable-garden and is much grown by market-gar- 
deners. It has a shorter season than most forms of water- 



ship, he melon is now a popular breakfast food, in its 
season taking the place of grapefruit. It forces well, and 
for this purpose some of the special English forcing varie- 
ties are most useful. 



170. Melon seeds (Xabout2). 




melon, and lends itself to a wide 
variety of soils and conditions at 
the same time that it is rather ex- 
acting if the greatest success is to be 
attained. The commercial product 
is grown mostly in special and lim- 
ited localities, and yet a given lo- 
cality may not long hold its leader- 




The Melon 



293 



The melon is displayed in Figs. 170 to 174. In Fig. 

172 a young fruit is seen at P. Above at the left is a 
pistillate flower with the ovary beneath the corolla; above 
right is a staminate 
flower, lacking the 
ovary. 

A light warm easily- 
tilled clean soil is 
usually chosen for the 
melon. Shallow till- 
age should be fre- 
quent, that the plant 
may grow strongly and continuously. It is useless to 
attempt to grow melons on cold, backward or hard heavy 
lands. The melon thrives particularly well in the 
irrigated regions; parts of the West and far Southwest 
are large producers. 

The distance of planting depends somewhat on the 
variety and also on the room at the grower's disposal. If 
land is ample, 6x6 feet is a good distance, but 4x6 feet 
is commonly advised. If the soil is not deep and fertile, 
" hills " may be made by working well-rotted manure into 
the earth where the plants are to stand and perhaps by 
adding quickly available commercial fertilizer. 

Seeds may be planted in the field as soon as the weather 
is finally settled and the soil warm. Twice as many seeds 
should be put in as are required to make the stand, to allow 
for insect injury and accidents. Two or three strong 
plants are finally left in each hill. For early melons, and 
also for late-maturing kinds, plants may be started in 
frames, on turves or in berry boxes, veneer boxes, or pots. 




171. Melon seedlings (X about V2). 



294 



The Cucurhits 



In the northern parts, the crop is often grown permanently 
in frames, the glass being removed entirely when the 
weather is fit and the plants established. Very choice 




melons may be grown in this way; much hand work is 
usually applied, and the fruits are sometimes lifted and a 
flat stone or shingle slipped under them: when the melons 
reach good size, the frames themselves, as well as the sash, 
may be removed. Every pains should be exercised to 
secure well-bred seed true to type, in any careful melon- 
growing. 

Melons are picked when signs of ripeness appear. This 
period cannot be described, but must be learned by experi- 
ence. The bright color begins to tone down to gray, signs 
of yellowness are apparent, the stem parts readily from the 
vine, and the fruit has attained the full size and develop- 



The Melon 



295 



ment of the particular variety; the appearance of imma- 
turity and " greenness " has passed. 

The fruits are marketed in crates and open-topped 




173. Netted melon (X 1/5). 



baskets^ the melons always as visible as possible through 
the openings. The soft-fleshed melons are often packed 
on straw in baskets and 



hampers. The melons 
should be graded to size, 
shape, markings and color. 

In this country, the vari- 
ous forms of reticulated 
melons are popular. It is 




customary to divide the 1^4. cantaloupe, scarcely known in 

varieties into (1) the green- 

fleshed kind and (2) yellow-fleshed and salmon-fleshed. 
Of the former are Netted Gem, Emerald Gem, Rocky 



296 



The Cucurbits 



Ford, Hackensack, Jenny Lind, Montreal. Of the latter 
are Emerald Gem, Osage, Banquet, Burrell, Tip Top. 
The Cassaba and Christmas melons are large types grown 
specially well in long-season irrigated regions, and 
thence shipped to the eastern markets. They are very un- 
like the common netted melons, lacking the odor and 
characteristic markings and keeping well. 

WATERMELON 

At 10 X 10 ft.. 435 hills are contained in an acre ; this is a 
common distance tor planting the commercial crop, but smaller 
garden varieties may be set 8 x S ft. About 4 or 5 pounds of 
seed are used to the acre. Plant about 1 in. deep. A good com- 
mercial crop is about 12 tons to the acre. The watermelon is 
more tender to cold than the muskmelon. 

Wilt {Fusariuni iureum). — rsually one branch after an- 
other of an affected plant wilts and dries up until the whole 
plant is dead. An examination of the stem shows the woody 
portion to be discolored. Control: Crop rotation, the control 
of drainage water to prevent overflowing uninfested soil, and 
the avoidance of contaminated stable manure on melon fields 
are important. 

Anthracnose {CoUetotrichum larienarium) . — This disease 
occurs also on cucumbers, muskmelons. and other plants of the 
cucurbit family. Irregular black dead spots appear on the 
affected leaves and die prematurely. Numerous blackened 
sunken spots appear on the fruits. Control: Thorough and 
timely spraying with bordeaux mixture is a preventive. 

Stem-end eot (Dioplodia sp.). — The first indication of the 
disease is a browning and shrivelling of the stem followed by 
a softening of the melon at the point of attachment. As the 
flesh softens, it becomes water-soaked in appearance. The dis- 
ease causes severe loss in shipment. Control: Field sanita- 
tion is important in view of the fact that vegetation of 
nearly all kinds may harbor the causal organism. Thorough 
applications of bordeaux mixture are necessary, since the fun- 



The Watermelon 



297 



gus developing on vines killed by other diseases will spread 
to the melons. The stems should be disiutecced at the time 
of loading by painting them with a starch paste containing 
copper sulfate. To prepare the paste, eight ounces of copper 
sulfate are dissolved in three and one-half quarts of hot water 
and to this boiling solution are added four ounces of starch 
mixed with a pint of cold water. 

Melon aphis (Aphis gossypii) . — See under Cucumber. 
Spray with " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco extract, % pint in 100 
gals, water in which 4 or 5 lbs. soap have been added. Be 
careful to hit the underside of the leaves. When the first 
hills are infested, fumigate with tobacco papers under frames 
covered with oilcloth. 

The watermelon is more popular in Worth America^ 
probably, than elsewhere in the world. In fact, it is" a 
feature of American living. The South Atlantic and 
Gulf States have occupied first place for size and quality 
of melons. ' More recently, the mid-continental States are 
coming to the front. The watermelon is a leading field 
crop in Georgia and elsewhere, great areas being devoted 
to it. The plant is little grown in market-gardens, for it 
requires too much space and the 
returns are not sufficient. It is FTcFv 



The outward distinctions between pistillate and staminate 
flowers are shown in Figs. 177 and 178, the presence or 
absence of the ovary (young fruit) being conspicuous. 
The first requisite in watermelon culture is a location 



primarily » truck crop or farm 
crop, on relatively low-priced 
land. 



The reader will recognize the 
watermelon in Figs. 175 to 179. 




I ^ I 

175. Watermelon seeds (X 1%). 



398 



The Cucurbits 



with sufficient length of season and continnons warmth to 
insure matnrit}^ of crop. Many varieties of watermelons 
are catalogued by seedsmen. Only a few of them are 

commercial varie- 
ties, and the kinds 
that are popular in 
the South require a 
too long season for 
the Xorth. Only in 
favored places are 

176. Watermelon seedlings (X 2/5). WatemielonS grOWU 

in the Northernmost • States. They are more uncertain 
than muskmelons, because of the short and cool seasons. 
A number of varieties, however, ripen without difficulty 
in the Northern States and Ontario when a warm soil 
and exposure are at hand and where small boys are 
absent. The plants may be started under glass, as advised 
on page 283. 

The ideal soil is light sandy loam with only a medium 
or small amount of nitrogen. 
Much nitrogen is thought to 
diminish the essential saccha- 
rine constituent. A point of 
special emphasis is that of 
thorough drainage. Swampy 
or " soggy land will not pro- 
duce favorable results. In the 

South the field for melons is 177. PistiHate (fertile) flower of 

often plowed in the fall, to watermelon (x 1/3). 

expose the soil to the pulverizing action of frost. 

Watermelons are planted in hills, which are usually 10 





I 



Tlie Watermelon 



299 



feet each way. The hills are made at the intersec- 
tion of check-rows. This " checking is usually accom- 
plished with shovel- or turn-plow. The hills are made by 
mixing several shovelfuls of well-rotted manure with soil 
and then covering the whole with several inches of soft 
earth, into which the seeds are planted directly. All dan- 
ger of frosts should be over before planting. Avoid bak- 
ing or crusting 
of the earth on H 
the hills, espe- 
cially before 
germination of 
seeds. Only hand 
tools should be 
used in the cul- 
tivation of crop 
after the vines 
have begun to 
run, as lifting 
or turning the 
vines will injure quality and size of fruit. 

" Eotation is all-important,'^ as written by Starnes 
(Bull. 38, Ga. Exp. Sta.). "In no case should melons fol- 
low melons the next season, and at least four years should 
intervene before the land is again planted in this crop. By 
that time insect depredators, attracted by the first melon 
crop, will have probably become exterminated and the drain 
from the soil of specific plant-food (especially potash) 
will also have been, to a certain extent, at least, made 
good.'' 

When is a watermelon ripe? According to Starnes, 




Staminate (sterile) flowers of watermelon (X 1/3). 



300 



The Cucurbits 



" unquestionabl}' the flat, dead sound emitted by a melon 
when ^ thumped ^ is the readiest indication of ripeness, and 
the one most universally depended on. If the resonance 
is hollow, ringing or musical, it is a certain proof of im- 
maturity. 

" Frequently on turning the melon and exposing the un- 
der side, the irregular white blotch formed Avhere the 
melon has rested on the ground affords an indication of 
maturity. When this begins to turn yellowish and becomes 
rough, pimply or wart}', with the surface sufficiently hard 
to resist the finger-nail when scratched, it is usually a fair 
sign of ripeness. 

" But there is one more test that is corroborative. After 
the melon ' looks ' ripe and ' thumps ' ripe, if, on a steady 
pressure of the upper side or ^ top ^ by the palm of the 
hand, while the melon lies on the ground, instead of resist- 
ing solidly the interior appears to have a tendency to yield 
— a ^ givey ' sort of feeling, as it were — accompanied by a 
crisp crackling, half heard, half felt, as the flesh parts 
longitudinally in sections under the pressure, the melon 
may be pulled with absolute confidence. It is certainly 
ripe. This test should never be resorted to with melons 
intended for shipment, as their carrying quality is neces- 
sarily impaired thereby. 

" Yet all this, as stated, comes largely by instinct to the 
expert, and it is rarely that one finds it necessary to 
' thump,' much less to ^ press,' a melon before deciding as 
to its maturity." 

Many of the small early watermelons may be grown 
successfully in warm northern gardens. Fruits of superior 
quality, and picked when in perfection, may be had freely 



T]ie Watermelon 



301 



for home consumption; greater attention should be paid to 
the plant by the home gardener. Among the melons suit- 
able for home gardens, not to mention others equally as 
good, are Peerless, Dark and Light Icing, Kleckley, Mc- 
Iver, Phinney, Halbert, Hungarian. The shipping water- 
melons, mostly requiring longer season, comprise such vari- 
eties as Kolb Gem, Rattlesnake, Dixie, Alabama Sweet, 




179. The market watermelon (X VO) 



Ironclad, Tom Watson. The oblong kinds (Fig. 179) may 
reach 2 feet in length. Fair-sized shipping watermelons 
weigh about 20 or 25 pounds, but they run to 30 pounds 
and more. Watermelons are shipped in bulk, by the car- 
load. 

PUMPKIN AND SQUASH 

Seeds are planted 1 in. to ll^ in. deep. When grown by 
themselves, pumpkins and field squashes are planted in hills 



302 



The Cucurbits 



8 to 10 feet apart. About 3 pounds of seed are required for 
an acre with the field or running varieties. Two or three 
mature fruits to a vine are a large crop. 

The bush squashes are grown as close as 3x4 feet in gar- 
dens, but the hills should be 4 or 5 feet apart if possible. 
From 4 to 5 pounds of seed are required to the acre. 

The pumpkins and squashes are affected by wilt disease and 
mosaic, for which see Cucumber. 

The striped beetle and squash bug are also treated under 
Cucumber, 

The pumpkins and squashes are of simple and easy cul- 
ture. Warm well-drained lands are chosen. The seeds 




181. Summer crookneck 182. Summer scallop squash 

squash (X Vs). (X 1/6). 



are planted directly in the field, often in " hills " specially 
prepared by the incorporation of manure or fertilizer or 



The PumpHn Tribes 



303 




One of the marrow squashes (X %)• 



both. Usually they thrive in good well-prepared corn land 
without special treatment. They must be got ahead early, 
in the Northern States, to yield the full crop before frost. 

Many or several seeds 
should be planted in the 
hill, and the plants thinned 
to two or three when the 
early dangers are passed. 

In pumpkins, as the 
term is understood in this 
country, the standard 
variety is the Connecticut Field. It is a long-running 
plant. The large orange-colored sleek furrowed fruits are 
used for pies and to feed stock; and the small boy prizes 
them for " jack o^ lanterns." It was formerly much grown 
in corn-fields. This plant 
is a form of Cucurbita 
Pepo. The summer 
squashes (Figs. 181, 182) 
are taken previous to full 
maturity before the shells 
harden. They are mar- 
keted in baskets and crates. 
They are interesting for 
the oddities in their 
shapes, as well as for their 
good comestible qualities. 

Of field or late squashes the leading types are the Hub- 
bard, Marblehead, Boston Marrow, Turban (Figs. 183, 
184). They are long-runners and sometimes are planted 
as much as 12 feet apart. The fruits have soft cylindrical 




One of the turban squashes; they are 
commonly less furrowed (X 1/6). 



304 



The Cucurbits 



stems. These squashes are kept for winter; they should 
have a dry and fairly warm place (temperature above 40°). 
When they are grown extensively, special stove-heated 

houses are built for 
them and they are 
stored on shelves or in 
shallow bins. To keep 
well, the fruits must 
be ripe, free from 
bruises and internal 
cracks, not frosted, and 
have the stem on. These 
They have a firm yellow 
Thev lend them- 




185. Winter crookneck (X %)• 



squashes are Cucurhita maxima. 
flesh, and a richer quahty than others, 
selves well to baking. 

A third specific t3'pe is Cucurhita moschata, to which be- 
long the Cushaws, Winter Crookneck (Fig. 185), Dunkard, 
Tennessee Sweet Potato Pumpkin,- and others. In the 
South the varieties of this species are common, but most 




186. Seeds of squash (somewhat 
enlarged). 




187. Seedlings of squash (X 2/5). 



of them are only indifferently successful in the Xorth. 
They are famous pie pumpkins in the Southern States. 

The illustrations will aid in distinguishing some of the 
classes; and Fis^s. 186 and 187 show seeds and seedlings of 



Botanij of Hie Cucurbits 



305 



C. maxima. The grower should familiarize himself with 
the interesting differences in foliage and flowers. 

The Cucuebitous Pla^^ts 

For the purposes of this discussion, we may consider only 
three genera of the Cuciirbitaeeie, comprising annual and per- 
ennial herbs of warm countries, those of the vegetable-garden 
being tender annuals: Cucumis with about 25 species, mostly 
African and Asian; Citrullus, 4 species in Africa; Cucurbita, 
about 10 species, perhaps American but the origin of the cul- 
tivated kinds unknown. All these garden species are monceci- 
ous, — the stamens and pistils being in separate flowers on the 
same plant; the staminate (malej flowers are more numerous 
than the pistillate, and soon perish. All are tendril-bearing, 
thereby grasping weeds and other supports and climbing over 
bushes and fences when allowed to do so ; plants hirsute, 
pubescent or prickly-hairy; fruit a pepo (the word " pepo " 
is Latin for a pumpkin or related fruit) which is a normally 
3-celled and mostly indehiscent more or less fleshy many- 
seeded pericarp, with the flower-parts at the apex. 

Cucumis. Two species are in common cultivation; and the 
burr gherkin, C. Anguria, is sometimes grown for the making 
of pickles from its tuberculate fruit and also for ornament. 
They are all slender-running plants with simple (unbranched) 
tendrils. The cucumber has been cultivated from prehistoric 
times, but the melon appears to be of later domestication. 

C. sativus. Linn. Sp. PI. 1012. Cucumber. Trailing or climb- 
ing rough-hairy her! s with alternate long-petioled triangular- 
ovate angled or somewhat 3-lobed irregularly dentate leaves, 
the middle lobe usually pointed : flowers axillary, yellow, with 
hairy calyx ; staminate 1* to several in the axil, 1 to lY-2 in. 
across, very short-pedicelled. the calyx-tube campanulate and 
exceeding the 5 subulate siireading lol;es, the corolla 3 or 4 
times longer than calyx-lobes, the corolla-lobes acute and usu- 
ally conduplicate, stamens 3 inserted on the corolla-tube and 
the bearded anthers produced into an erect -appendage ; pis- 



306 



Tlie Cucurhits 



tillate flower mostly solitary, nearly or quite sessile, the long 
3-celled ovary much constricted at its summit, the three 2-lobed 
stigmas very large, the staminodia usually not evident: fruit 
mostly oblong, sometimes nearly globular, prickly or tubercu- 
late: seeds small (about in. long nnd nearly half as wide), 
brownish-white, elliptic, flat, and apiculate or sharp-pointed 
at apex, smooth, 20 to 35 mg. in weight, keeping S to 10 years 
or even longer. Yar. anglicus, Bailey, Cyclo. Amer. Hort., 
408. 1900. English or Forcing Cucumber. Vine very strong 
and vigorous : leaves large and broad, short in proportion to 
breadth : flowers very large ; ovaries and fruits very long and 
slender (fruit sometimes 3 ft. long), little furrowed, spine- 
less or nearly so, ripening green or nearly so rather than 
yellow, the seeds few. 

C. Melo, Linn. Sp. PL 1011. Melon. Muskmelon. Trail- 
ing or climbing soft-pubescent or hairy herbs, with long-petioled 
reniform or round-ovate deeply cordate hairy angled but com- 
monly not lobed apiculate-dentate leaves : flowers yellow, with 
hairy calyx, on short peduncles ; staminate 1 or more in the 
axil, about 1 in. across, the 5 narrow calyx-lobes about as long 
as the tube, the 5 oblong nearly obtuse corolla-lobes 3 times 
as long as calyx-lobes, stamens 3 inserted on the corolla-tube 
and the anthers produced above into an erect appendage; 
pistillate flower single, with inferior 3-celled globular or oblong 
ovary, the 3 stigmas surrounded by 3 conspicuous staminodia 
(sterile anthers), which, however, are often polliniferous, mak- 
ing the flower perfect : fruit various, globular or cylindrical, 
more or less furrowed, pubescent but usually becoming glab- 
rous : seeds elliptic or oblong, brownish-white, plump, about 
1/4 in. long and in. broad, not apiculate. smooth, weighing 
25 to 35 mg. and holding vitality 5 to 10 years. — Probably cen- 
tral Asian. (The word " Melo " is Latin for a form of melon.) 
Yar. reticulatus, Naudin, Ann. des Sci. Nat. Bot. Ser. 4, ii, 50. 
1S59. Reticulated or Netted Melons. Small fruits with the 
surface net-ribbed, comprising the nutmeg melons. Yar. can- 
talupensis, Naudin. 1. 2. 47. Cantaloupe Melons. (Fig. 174.) 
Fruits with hard rinds, often furrowed, warty, scaly or rough. 



Botany of the Cucurbits 



307 



Practically nnkno\^ai in this country, the name cantaloupe 
here being improperly ai)plied to melons in general. 

Var. inodorus, Nauclin, 1. c. 56. Winter Melon. Cassaba 
Melon. Strong long-tendrilled plants with large less hairy 
leaves which often are lobed, sometimes round-ovate and deeply 




188. Leaf anc ct-rr -rt- f.~wrr of Cucrrr'i':a Tcp (X about V2). 



cordate like leaves of Cucurlnta maxima: flowers very large, 
often 2 in. across : fruit with little of the musky odor asso- 
ciated with the musk melon, ripening late and keeping into 
winter, often oblong and squash-like in shape and frequently 
striped and splashed. 



308 



The Cucurbits 



Var. flexuosus, Naiidin, 1. c, G3. (C. flc.ruosus, Linn. Sp. PL 
Ed. 2, 1437. 1763.) Snake or Serpent Melon. Plant slen- 
der : flowers large : fruit long and thin, 1 to 3 in. thick and 
frequently IS to 36 in. long, often curiously curved and crooked. 




189. Leaf and pistillate flower of C. Pepo; the ovary is at P 
(X about 2/5). 



— Used sometimes for preserves, but grown mostly as a 
curiosity. . 

Yar. Dudaim, Xaudin. 1. c. C9. (C. Dudaim. Linn. Sp. PI. 
1011. C. odoratissimus. Moench. Meth. 654. 1794.) Dudaim 
Melon. Small and slender plant with more or less lengthened 
leaves : flowers relatively large : fruit size of an oblate orange, 



Botany of the Cucurbits 



309 



smooth, longitudinally marbled with rich brown, very fra- 
grant. — Grown for ornament and for the strong scent of the 
fruit. ("Dudaim" is a Hebrew name, said to be scriptural.) 



1. c. 67. (0. Chito, Morr. Ann. Soc. 
Mango Melon. Slender plant with 
fruit size and shape of an 



Var. Chito, Naudin, 
Gand. v, 341. 1849.) 
melon-like foliage but smaller : 
orange or lemon, or some- 
times oblong, not fragrant 
or variegated, yellow or 
greenish yellow, the flesh 
white and much like that of 
a cucumber, whence the 
name " Lemon Cucumber." 
—Used in the making of 
" mango " preserves and 
pickles ; known also as 
Orange Melon, Melon Apple, 
Vine Peach, Vegetable 
Orange. (The word " Chito " 
is probably geographical.) 

C. Anguria, Linn. Sp. PI. 
1011. West India or Bukr 
Gherkin. Burr Cucumber. 
A very slender rough-hairy 
plant with angled stems and 
small leaves lobed or cut 
into usually 5 rounded lobes 
with open sinuses: flowers 
about Ys in. across, yellow, 
on slender peduncles : fruit 
oval or oblong, pale yellow, 
longitudinally furrowed and 
marked, prickly, about 2 in. long : seeds elliptic, whitish, about 

in. long, 6 to 8 mg. in weight. — Florida and Texas to South 
America. (The name " Anguria " is of Greek origin, applied 
to some kind of cucurbitous fruit.) 

Citrullus. Aside from the watermelon, only the colocynth 




Staminate flower of Cucurbita 
maxima (X about 2/5). 



310 



The Cucurbits 



(C. Colocynthis) is cultivated, as a curiosity for its small 
globular very bitter fruit which is also used in medicine. 

C. vulgaris, Schrad. in Ecklon & Zeyher, Enum. PI. Afr. 
Austr., 279. 1834. {Cucur'bita Citrullus, Linn. Sp. PI. 1010.) 
Watermelon. Long-running hairy vine with branching ten- 




191. Leaf and pistillate flower of C. maxima; ovary at P (X about 2/5). 



drils : leaves ovate to ovate-oblong in outline, short- or lonu- 
petioled, the blade pinnately divided into 3 or 4 pairs of lobes, 
the lowest one again lobed, and with small lobes and teeth 
variously placed, the base of the blade cordate : flowers axil- 
lary, light yellow, rather slender-peduncled, \\^-th. hairy calyx ; 



Botany of the Cucurbits 



311 



staminate VA to 1% in, across, rotate, the shallow calyx-tube 
not equalling the 5 subulate spreading calyx-lobes, the broad 
obovate obtuse green-veiny corolla-lobes about 3 times exceed- 
ing the calyx-lobes, the 3 short stamens with very large curling 
anthers; pistillate flowers solitary, with 3 short very large 
2-lobed stigmas and small not protruding staminodia, the ovary 
usually 3-celled: fruit glob- 
ular or oblong, mostly glab- 
rous, with a hard rind and 
sweet red or white flesh, on 
the outside green and com- 
monly more or less marbled 
when ripe : seeds white or 
black, elliptic, flat, ridged on 
the edge, about Vo to % in. 
long and % to % in. wide, 
with a characteristic promi- 
nence on either side at the 
point, weighing 90 to 120 
mg., lasting 5 or 6 years. — • 
Tropical and South Africa. 
The " citron " of housewives, 
used for making of a pre- 
serve, is a hard-fleshed 
watermelon. A special kind 
is grown in China for the 
seeds, which are eaten. 

Cucurbita. The three do- 
mesticated species of Cucur- 
bita, comprising the 
squashes, pumpkins and the 
small yellow-flowered 
gourds, are readily dis- 
tinguished in the field when the eye is trained to recognize 
the distinction, but may not be easily separated in herbarium 
specimens or by description. Following are visual features 
of separation : 




staminate flower of Cucurbita moschata 
(X about Vz). 



312 



T1i& Cucurbits 



A. Plant harsh and rough to the feel, due to the presence of 
many stiff sharp translucent hairs, the foliage stiff and 
more or less rigid, standing erect : leaves with a triangu- 
lar or ovate-triangular outline, pointed, mostly distinctly 
lobed and the margins irregularly sharp-serrate, the 




193. Leaf and pistillate flower of C. moschata; ovary at P (X about %). 

lobes and larger angles apiculate : flowers mostly with 
erect or spreading pointed lobes, the corolla-tube prevail- 
ingly flaring and narrowing toward the base ; calyx-lobes 
short and narrow : peduncle strongly angled and expand- 
ing next the ovary and fruit : C. Pepo, Linn. Sp. PI. 



Botany of the Cucurbits 



313 



1010. Field Pumpkix. Here belong the plants commonly 
known in North America as pumpkins, used for stock- 
feeding and for the making of pumpkin pie. There are 
several garden varieties, long-running coarse rough vines, 
the fruits ripening in autumn. The vegetable marrow 
is of this species. (Figs. 180, 188, 189.) 

Yar. condensa, Bailey, Cyclo. Amer. Hort. 409. 1900. 
Bush Pumpkin. Summer Squash. Simlin (Cymliug). 
Not running or tendril-bearing, compact; fruits very 
various, ripening in summer and autumn. Here are 
included the Scallop or Pattypan squashes, and the 
common Summer Crookneck (Figs. 181, 182). 

Var. ovifera, Bailey, 1. e. (C. ovifera. Linn. Mant. i, 
126. 1767.) Yellow-p LOWERED Gourds. Plants running, 
slender, the leaves small and commonly deeply lobed : 
fruits small, hard-shelled and keeping indefinitely, yel- 
low or green or variously striped, apple-shaped, pear- 
shaped, oblate, sometimes warty. An interesting group 
of plants grown for the ornamental inedible fruits. 
A. Plants softer to the feel, the foliage less rigid and not 
so upright : leaves round or nearly so, not lobed, the 
cordate base with a very deep sinus, margins uniformly 
shallow-serrate with soft points to the serratures: flow- 
ers with broader lobes which are usually reflexed or 
revolute in full bloom, the corolla-tube with parallel sides 
or even bulging toward the base ; calyx-lobes short and 
narrow : peduncle short and nearly cylindrical, not en- 
larging next the ovary and fruit, often developing its 
largest diameter at the middle: C. maxima, Duchesne 
in Lam. Encyc. ii, 151. 1786. Autumx and Winter 
Squash. Here belong the Hubbard, Mammoth Chile, 
Lowe, Essex Hybrid. Boston Marrow, Marl)lehead, Tur- 
ban and similar varieties. They are autumn-ripening 
fruits and keep well in winter. The flesh is firm and 
mostly golden yellow or orange-yellow. Some of the 
large or mammoth kinds are frequently called pump- 
kins ; but they lack the light or bright yellow external 



314 



The Cucurbits 



color of the fruits of C. Pcpo (Figs. 1S3, 1S4, 1S6, 187, 
190, 191). 

AAA. Plant soft to the feel, the foliage as if limp and vel- 
vety, not strongly upright : leaf-form and margins much 
as in AA, but sometimes distinctly lobed as in A. often 
with whitish marks or blotches : tiowers with wide 
crinkly wide-spreading lobes, the tube broad at base 
but usually not bulging ; calyx-lobes often long and 
expanding into a leaf-like structure at the end : peduncle 
much as in A, usually expanding more widely at its 
juncture with the mature fruit : C. moschata, Duchesne. 
Diet. Sci. Nat. xi, 234. 1818. Cushaw and Winter 
Crookneck Squashes. Many of the forms of this species 
appear to be oriental. The Canada Crookneck belongs 
here, as also the Yokohama. Quaker Pie, Japanese Pie. 
Jonathan (Figs. 185, 192, 193). 

The three species of Cucurbita described above are coarse 
long-running plants (except that there are bush varieties of 
C. Pepo), with large alternate leaves on hollow petioles and 
forking tendrils arising from the .side of the stem near the 
axils : stem angled, rooting at some of the joints : staminate 
flowers long-peduncled and therefore conspicuous ; pistillate 
(female) flowers short-stalked and therefore lower down 
among the foliage; stamens 3, with very broad fllaments sep- 
arate near the base but upwardly joined and with the united 
anthers making a single central column in the flower; ovary 
inferior. 3-celled, the 3 large stigmas 2-lobed, the bottom of 
the pistillate flower provided with a prominent cup-like disc 
which leaves its scar on the " blossom end " of the fruit : the 
peduncle or stem of the fruit is characteristic of the species, 
as described above and shown in the illustrations (Figs. 180-2, 
183-4, 185) : seeds various in size between the species as also 
between varieties in the same species, elliptic-ovate in outline, 
flat, or somewhat plumper in C. maxima and C. moschata. 
those of the yellow-flowered gourds (C. Pepo var. orifera) 
about 1/2 in. long and % in. broad and weighing 60 to 



Botanij of the Cucurbits 



315 



100 mg., those of the Summer Crookneck {C. Pepo var. 
condensa) about % in. long and % in. or more broad and 
weighing 90 to 100 mg., those of field pumpkin (C, Pepo) % 
in. long and 1/2 in. broad and weighing 150 to more than 200 
mg., of Mammoth Chile Squash (C. ma-rima) 1 in. by % in. 
and weighing nearly 500 mg. ; vitality 5 to 7 years. The seeds 
of 0. Pepo and C. vioschata are much alike in form, dirty 
white color, and thin edge with raised border ; those of C. 
maxima are whiter, round-edged, and without the same kind 
of elevated rim. 

The nativity of these cucurbitas is not yet determined. Some 
authorities think them probably American and others ascribe 
them to Central Asia. It is not likely that the species inter- 
mix. C. Pepo and C. maxima apparently do not cross, and 
there are no known hybrids in cultivation between any of 
the species. It would be good to know whether a bee visits 
the three species indiscriminately in a single journey. The 
botany of the group is still imperfectly comprehended, and 
it is unsafe to make positive statements on these subjects ; 
but for practical purposes it may be said that the species hol;l 
their identity. 



CHAPTEE XII 



SWEET CORN. OKRA. MARTYNIA 

The plants herein discussed are all icarm-iceather crops; 
they are annuals, or grown as such, cultivated for their im- 
mature fruits; tliey should have quick soil; usually they 
are not transplanted; other than good tillage, no special 
treatment is required. 

Corn, okra and mart3^nia are cnlturally somewhat re- 
lated, but they have little else in common. They are placed 
together here because none of them fits well into the other 
groups. 

SWEET CORN 

Rows of corn are made at 3 to 4 ft. apart. In the row 
the hills (of 3 to 5 stalks each) are planted at about 2i/^ to 3 
ft., or single kernels may be dropped every ten to twelve inches. 
At 21/2 to 3 ft. apart, the crop may be tilled in both directions. 
Cover the seed about 1 in. deep, or somewhat deeper late in 
the season. When the corn is small, the ground may be har- 
rowed without destroying the plant. In hills, one peck to 
the acre is required for planting ; 8.000 to 10,000 ears should 
be secured from an acre. 

Corn smut {VstUago zecc). — Enlarged galls or swellings 
that break open and expose a dark brown to black powdery 
mass of spores are formed on any actively growing part. 
Control: The practice of removing and destroying all smut 
boils while they are young is recommended as a means of 

(316) 



Sweet Corn 



317 



reducing the smut developing in the field. Crop rotation is 
leneficial and it is desirable not to apply corn-fodder mannio 
to a field on which corn is to be grown next season. 

Corn eak-worm (Ileliothis ohsoleta) . — A caterpillar, l^/^ to 2 
in. long, varying from light green to brown, highly variable in 
markings but usually with a longitudinal- pale stripe along 
the side, edged above with blackish. The eggs are laid on the 
silk and the young caterpillars work their way down under 
the husk, where they feed on the green silk and unripe kernels. 
The broods coming late in the season are much more abun- 
dant and injury to late corn is therefore greater. Control: 
Experiments in New Jersey have shown that the injury to 
sweet corn may be greatly decreased by dusting the silk with 
a mixture of 50% arsenate of lead and 50% finely ground 
sulfur. The first application is made soon after the silk 
first appears, followed by one or two more applications before 
the corn is ready to pick. For regions where the pest is 
abundant corn for the cannery should be grown early in the 
season to avoid most of the injury. 

European corn borer (Pyrausta nuMIalis). — A yellowish 
gray brown-headed caterpillar, about % in. long, minutely 
brown-spotted and indistinctly striped with reddish or dusky. 
The caterpillars bore In all parts of the plants except the 
roots. They are found in the stalks, ear, cob and in the tassel. 
There are one or two broods depending on the climate — two 
in the vicinity of Boston and one in the Mohawk River Valley, 
New York. This pest was recently introduced from Europe 
and as far as known is now restricted to central New England. 
New York and Northwestern Pennsylvania. Control: To pre- 
vent the spread of this pest, strict Federal and State quaran- 
tines have been established, governing the transportation of 
plants likely to contain the larvae. No effective control meas- 
ures applicable to ordinary farm conditions have been devised. 

Brown fruit chafer (Euphoria inda) . — A thick-set yellow- 
ish brown beetle, % in. long, marked on the back with small 
irregular black dots. The beetles appear in the fall and attack 
the corn in the milk, often working down under the husk. 



318 



Sweet Corn. Okra. Martynia 



The larvje feed on the ground in the vicinity of manure piles. 
Hand-picking is tlie only effective method of control known. 

Stink-bugs (Euschistus rariolarius and E. euschistoides) . — 
These two dull grayish brown stink-bugs, about % in. long, 
often attack corn by puncturing the kernels through the husk 
and sucking out the juices. The bugs are most abundant in 
waste land grown up to weeds. Clean farming will greatly 
reduce their numbers. 

As a garden or horticultural crop, sweet corn or sugar 
corn is the only kind of maize that need be considered here. 
It is grown for the immature ears, which are eaten when 
the grains are yet soft. Although practically unknown in 
other parts of the world, it is a very important product in 
I^orth America. Its importance has greatly increased in 
recent time because it is extensively canned. Sweet corn 



the cob seems to be an American enterprise. " Green 
corn " is a characteristic and highl}^ desirable food prod- 
uct, and nothing seems to connect one closer with the soil 
and the open. Figs. 194, 195, 196 illustrate it. 

The cultivation of sweet corn is not unlike that of field 
corn, with the exception that greater attention is paid to 
earliness and to the development of each individual plant. 
It is therefore given, if possible, an earlier and warmer 
soil, with quickly available fertilizers, and it is usually 
grown in hills rather than in continuous drills. The idea 




194. Kernels of a sweet corn 
(X about 2). 



is not grown in the Southern 
States ; or if it is, the seed is 
renewed every year. It holds 
its peculiar attributes in the 
short sharp seasons of the 
Northern States and parts of 
Canada. Eating corn from 



Sweet Corn 



319 




Maize coming up (X 2/3). 



is to secure as many ears as possible, and therefore each 
stalk should be given adequate room. In field corn, on the. 
contrary, particularly since the advent of the silo, the 
fodder may be quite as important a., the grain. If the sea- 
son is short and the 
soil is hard and back- 
ward, it is well to add 
a little commercial 
fertilizer to each hill 
to start the plants off 
quickly. Maize does 
particularly well fol- 
lowing sod. 

The excellence of the crop depends to an important de- 
gree on the parentage of the seed. Seed-breeding plots 
should be maintained, or else extra discrimination should 
be exercised in the purchase of seed for planting. 

Seed is planted for the early crop as soon as the ground 
is thoroughly warm. Since sweet-corn seed is particularly 
liable to rot in cold and damp ground, it is well to make 
the first planting rather heavy. It is possible to start in 
plots and transplant, but in practice it is planted directly 
in the field. The early plantings are usually made of the 
extra-early varieties, as Minnesota, Cory, Golden Bantam 
and others. The main crop is commonly secured from the 
later or main-season varieties, of which the Stowell Ever- 
green is a standard. Successional plantings may be made 
at intervals of one to two weeks, particularly for the home 
garden or for a continuous supply for the market-garden. 
In market-gardening, the value of the green-corn crop is 
often determined by its earliness. Two or three days in 



Sweet Com 



321 



time of ripening may make'a difference between the profit- 
able and unprofitable crop, particularly when one is un- 
der strong competition with neighboring gardeners. In 
such cases the grower secures the early crop by means of 
the very earliest varieties, carefully selected seed, and par- 
ticularly by having quick and well-prepared land to which 
only readily available fertilizers have been added. If the 
land is inclined to be hard and rough, it is well to turn it 
up loose in the fall. 

Tillage of sweet corn should be shallow and frequent 
until earing well begins; tliereafter the tillage may be 
little or discontinued, but weeds should be kept down by 
hand or pulled as they appear. 

Although corn is a hot-weather plant and thrives in the 
fullest exposure to sunlight, it nevertheless is not able to 
withstand drought as well as potatoes and many other 
crops. This is because it is relatively a surface feeder. 
Every effort should be made, therefore, to save the mois- 
ture in the soil. The moisture content is held by deep 
preparation of the land and by the incorporation of veg- 
etable matter. Thereafter it is saved by surface tillage. 

In the general market, corn is usually retailed by the 
dozen ears. As a field crop for the canning factories, the 
ears are ordinarily sold by the ton, after all small and im- 
perfect ears are discarded. The ears of the second setting 
will develop better if those of the first setting are picked 
as soon as they are fit for use. 

It is a frequent practice to pull the ears too soon, to get 
the benefit of early market. The kernels should be large 
and well formed when the corn is harvested, so that they 
make a continuous pavement-like surface on the ear, "well 



322 



Sweet Corn. Olcra. Marty nia 



filled out." The ears are marketed in their husk.?, tlu 
outer loose leaves being pulled off, in baskets, hampers and 
barrels. Sweet corn makes a very attractive product if 
well graded, and sent to market in paper-lined hampers or 
in cartons (Fig. 235). 

For home use, Golden Bantam is now the favorite be- 
cause of its delicious sweet quality. At first objections 
were raised because of its yellow color but this is mere 
prejudice or lack of reason; there is no more reason why 
corn should be white than yellow. The demand for mere 
whiteness in food products is one of our precious absurdi- 
ties. Golden Bantam yields small ears and therefore may 
not be wanted on certain markets. It is an 8- and 10-rowed 
variety. There is a long list of excellent varieties of sweet 
corn, of which Mayflower, Cory, Metropolitan, Perry, Min- 
nesota, Crosby, Stabler, Champion, Country Gentleman, 
Black Mexican, Stowell Evergreen may be mentioned. 
Adams Early is not a true sweet corn, but is grown for 
the market because of its earliness and hardiness. 

The Sweet Maize Plant 

Zea. Graminecr. Two dozen and more specific names have 
been given in tlie genus Zea. but tlie prevailing opinion rednces 
them all to forms of one polymorphous species, Z. Mays, Linn. 
Sp. PI. 971. Maize. ^ Indian Corn. The plant is unknown 
wild. Historical and other evidence indicates an American 
origin ; probably Mexican. By some authors it is thought to 
have originated as a hybrid between other genera of grasses. 

Z. Mays, Linn., var. rugosa, Bonaf.. Mais. 39, fig. 19 pi. xi. 
1S36. (Z. saccharata, Sturtevant. 3rd Rep. X. Y. Exp. Sta. 
156. 1884. Z. Mai/s var. saccharata. Bailey, Cyclo. Amer. 
Hort. 2006. 1902.) Sweet Corn. Plant of relatively low 
stature, 4 to 7 or 8 ft., strict, the culm smooth and glabrous. 



Corn and Olcr^a 



323 



commonly with brace-roots from tlie lower exposed joints; 
stem or culm with prominent nodes or joints, above which 
extend the long tight often ciliate-edged leaf-sheath : leaves 

1 at every joint, long linear-lanceolate, acuminate-pointed, 

2 to 3 ft. long and 2 to 3 In. wide, with a short scarious ligule 
at top of sheath, the midrib prominent : flowers numerous, 
imperfect, the staminate (male) in the "tassel" or panicle 
terminating the culm, and the pistillate in " ears " or spikes 
from 1, 2 or 3 of the lower or mid-stem axils and facing a 
grooved internode, the ears covered with modified sheaths or 
husks ; staminate spikelets 2 at the nodes of the rachises con- 
stituting the panicle (one of them pedicelled and one sessile), 
each spikelet 2-flowered and with 2 empty ciliate glumes and 
2 thin palets and 2 lemmas, the stamens 3 in each flower and 
bearing large exserted dangling anthers ; pistillate spikelets 
sessile, 8 to 24 rows on a long thick axis or cob, comprising 
a single pistil covered in the ciliate notched glumes but out- 
growing the floral envelopes (which are 2 glumes, 2 palets and 
2 lemmas) and leaving them as chaff on the cob, the single 
style arising from the apex and very much prolonged, the 
many protruding hanging styles constituting the " silk " : fruit 
a hard dry angular kernel ("seed"), flattened on the sides, 
narrowed below to a point or in other kernels truncate at 
base, sulcate on one side, at maturity and when dry wrinkled 
on top and the outsides, a well-formed pointed kernel measur- 
ing at maturity % in, either way, weighing 200 to 300 mg. 
more or less ; vitality 1 to 4 years. Sometimes pistillate flowers 
are borne in the tassel, producing kernels ; and sometimes 
there is a staminate extension of the ear ; these are unusual 
and abnormal states. 

OKRA OE GrMBO 

Warm climate and soil, and the attention given to the 
groiving of a good crop of corn or cotton, are the prime re- 
quirements for oJiva. It is usually planted directly in the 
field. 



324 



Sweet Corn. Olcra. Martynia 



The large varieties of okra should go in rows 4 to 5 ft. 
apart, and the plants may stand 12 to 30 in. in the row ; the 
dwarf varieties may go as close as 3 ft., and 10 to 15 in. in 
the row. -Sometimes the crop is grown in hills, after the way 
of corn, 2, 3 or 4 plants standing together after the thinning. 
If land is abundant, the rows for large sorts may be as much 
as 5 ft. asunder. Seeds are covered 1 to V/2 or 2 in. deep. 

The okra caterpillar (Aiiomis erosa). — A pale pea-green 
looking caterpillar, about 1^4 iu- long, inconspicuously marked 
with five narrow broken yellowish lines above and with a 
broader yellowish white stripe on each side. The young cater- 
pillars eat out small holes in the leaves and the older ones 
irregular areas in the side, often defoliating the plant. Con- 
trol: When the caterpillars first appear, spray with arsenate, 
of lead (paste), 2 lbs, in 50 gallons water or, to avoid the 
danger of using an arsenical, " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco extract. 
10 ounces to 100 gallons water, in which 5 or 6 lbs. soap have 
been dissolved, may be used. 

Corn ear-worm (HcUofliis olisoleta). — The corn ear-worm 
often attacks the pods. See under Sweet Corn. Control: Plant 
a row or two of corn near the okra to serve as trap crop. 
It should be cut before the caterpillars reach maturity. 

Gray hair-streak BrTTERFLY {Vranotes mclinus) . — The 
slug-like caterpillars of this dainty blackish blue-gray butterfly 
sometimes injure the buds and leaves. If necessary they may 
be controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead. 

Spinach aphis (Myziis pcrsiccv) . — See under Spinach. 

Melon aphis (Aphis gossiipii). — See under Cucumber. 

Okra is a hot-weather plant, cultivated as an annual, 
the seeds being sown each spring. It is commonly 
grown in the Southern States, where its partially matured 
pods are in much demand for soups and stews, and salads 
are made from the boiled tender pods. These pods must 
be cut when still tender and pulpy, before they have de- 



Okra 



325 




veloped strings or woody fiber. Pods are also canned 
(often witli tomatoes), and dried for subsequent use. Tliey 
are ready for picking a day or two 
after bloom. 

Okra is grown in essentially the 
same way as corn. The seeds are 
197. Seeds of okra (X 2). sowu wherc the plants are to stand, 
as the young plants do not transplant with ease. In the 
Northern States, however, the plants are sometimes started 
in pots, boxes or on inverted sods in frames. Okra is a 
large-growing plant and the rows should be 3 to 4, or even 
5, feet apart for the larger varieties. In the row the plants 
should stand 1 to 3 
feet. In the North 
certain dwarf and 
early-maturing varie- 
ties are usually grown, 
and these may stand 
as close as 1 foot, or 
even less, in the row. 

" As soon as the 
plants begin to set 
fr^it,^' writes W. E. Beattie in Farmers^ Bulletin No. 232, 
" the pods should be gathered each day, preferably in the 
evening. The flower opens during the night or early morn- 
ing and fades after a few hours. The pollen must be trans- 
ferred during the early morning, and the pod thus formed 
will usually be ready for gathering during the latter part 
of the following day, although the time required to pro- 
duce a marketable pod varies according to the age of 
the plant and the conditions under which it is grown. 




of okra (X V2). 



326 



Sweet Corn. OJcra. Marfynia 



The pods should always be gathered, irrespective of size, 
while they are still soft and before the seeds are half 
grown." 

Varieties are tall and dwarf ; also long-podded and short- 
podded. Prominent names among the varieties, which are 
often more or less unstable and poorly defined, are Perkins, 
Tall Green, Long Green, Creole, and Velvet among the 




199. Leaf and pods of okra (X %)• 



long-pods. Little Gem and Dwarf Green among the short- 
pods. The pods should be picked every day, when the plant 
comes into good size, not only that the product may be 
tender but that the bearing season of the plant may be 
extended. The small green pods are marketed in berry 
boxes or other small packages. Figs. 197 to 199 show the 
okra plant. 



Botany of Ohra 



321 



The Okra Plant 

Hibiscus. Malvacew. Nearly 200 species of herbs and small 
trees iu many parts of tlie world. 

H. esculentus, Linn. Sp. PI. 696. Okra. Gumbo. (Alel- 
moschus esculentus, Moench, Metli. 617. 1794.) Stout erect 
branching nearly glabrous annual (biennial and perhaps per- 
ennial), 2 to 7 ft. tall: stems terete, pithy, more or less fur- 
rowed, often colored, glabrous or with few scattered hairs: 
leaves alternate, long-petioled, the blade various in shape 
from rounded and hollyhock-like to palmately 3- to 5-parted 
or compound, the margins coarsely and irregularly dentate, 
cordate at the base, with scattered hairs on the veins : flowers 
solitary in the upper axils, on stout erect furrowed or angled 
peduncles, large, yellow or straw-yellow with a red eye, sub- 
tended by very narrow bracteoles about 1 in. long; calyx-lobes 
large and broad, acute, about half the length of the bell-shaped 
corolla which is 2 to 3 in. long ; petals large and showy, 
obovate; stamens united in a column in the center of the 
flower and surrounding the 5 styles : fruit a long straight or 
curved strongly ribbed pubescent or hairy 5-celled pod (4 to 12 
in. long), which is expanded at the base and long-pointed 
at the apex : seeds gray or brown, skull-shaped or nearly 
globular, with fine concentric broken lines, and a whitish 
base-point, -f^ to i/4 in. diameter, about 45 to 60 mg. in weight, 
lasting about 5 years. — Supposedly native in Old World tropics, 
Africa or Asia or both ; probably not anciently cultivated, 
although now widespread in warm countries. 

MARTYNIA 

Martynia is grown for the half -matured seed-pods, which 
are used for pickles. The plant requires a warm soil and 
exposure. Give much room, for a good plant will spread 
over an area of 3 or 4 feet across. It is a low-spreading 
plant of very rapid growth, with very large hairy leaves, 
odd showy flowers, and long-beaked hairy pods. It de- 



Sweet Corn. Okra. 



Martynia 




The Marhjnia 



329 



mands no special treatment. Seeds may be started in 
frames or planted in the open as soon as warm weather 
comes. Its use is not extensive, but the seeds find a place 
in the standard catalogues. It often self-sows, coming up 
the following year; in this way it is reported as an intro- 
duced or escaped plant in regions far outside its native 
range. It is frequently grown for ornament or as a 
curiosity. Figs. 200 to 205 show the features of this odd 
plant. 

The martyuia or unicorn plant is one of the few species of 
the Martyniacese. As now treated, the family comprises three 
genera, and the genus Martynia proper has but a single species, 
while the common martynia of the gardens goes into the genus 
Proboscidea, characterized by a short corolla-tnbe and 4 fertile 
stamens. 

The martynia mostly offered by American seedsmen 
amongst vegetable-garden seeds becomes Proboscidea louisiana, 
Wooton & Standley, Contr. U. S. Nat. Mus. xix, G02. 1915. 
{Martynia louisiana, Mill. Gard. Diet. Ed. 8. 1768. M. probo- 
scidea, Gloxin, Obs. Bot. 14. 1785. P. Jussieid, Steud. Nomen. 
Ed. 2, ii, 397. 1841.) It is an odd densely clammy-pubescent 
low wide-spreading tender annual herb with thick opposite 
divaricate branches : leaves alternate or subopposite, soft and 
thick, mostly horizontal or nearly so, long-petioled, round- 
ovate to oblong-ovate, obtuse, wavy-margined but not lobed, 
strongly palmately ribbed, cordate and often unequal at the 
base, the basal auricles turned upwards : flowers large, in 
racemes that become central in the forks, square-ended in bud ; 
calyx unequally 5-lobed, the upper lobes much longer, slit to 
Ihe base on the lower side, subtended by 2 small pad-like or 
lanceolate deciduous bracts ; corolla light violet to purple, 1% 
in. long, tube IV^ in. long and % in. diameter orosswise at the 
mouth, hairy outside, limb unequally 5-lobed, oblique with the 
rounded middle lobe largest and projected forward and undu- 



330 



Sweet Corn. Okra. Martynia 



late, the side lobes spreading, the two upper lobes upright and 
the edges more or less rolled back, the floor of the tube 
marked with a broad straight yellow and sometimes striped 
band which enlarges and terminates with irregular end toward 
the center of the lower lobe, upper part of throat spotted; 
anthers 4, included in the roof of the tube, borne on the lower 
part of the corolla-tube, in two pairs joined by their 2-celled 
anthers, one pair 1/3 shorter than the other ; pistil single, 
ovary oblong bearing a long upwardly expanding style, the 
stigma 2-lobed, the lobes closing to the touch : fruit hanging, 
with a thick body 8 in. long and a curved beak of equal or 
greater length, properly 1-celled but appearing 5-celled on 
cross-section, the fleshy pericarp finally rotting away and leav- 
ing the two bony horned valves with crests on the inner edge 
of the main part like the lower jaws of a tusked animal : seeds 
oblong or oblong-ovate, % to % in. long, more or less angled 
and irregular, black, tuberculate and alveolate, weighing 30 to 
50 mg., holding vitality a year or two. — Native from Indiana 
to New Mexico, sometimes escaped elsewhere. Many small 
insects become entangled in the sticky hairs of the stems, 
leaves, flow^ers and pods. 



CHAPTEE XIII 

CULINARY HERBS 

Although there is relatively small desire on the part of 
Americans for condimental and flavoring herbs, neverthe- 
less every complete home garden should have a small area 
set aside for the cultivation of at least a half dozen of the 
leading kinds. They add a peculiar variety and charm to 
the kitchen-garden, and connect it with old rhymes and 
memories. 

What are commonly known as " herbs in the trade 
comprise a great variety of plants. Some of them are 
grown for medicinal purposes, some for flavoring, some for 
the decoration of culinary dishes and others for salads and 
minor home uses. What are commonly known as " the 
sweet herbs," however, are such plants as are used as an in- 
cident to cookery. Of these the most popular in America 
is sage. 

Some of the culinary herbs are prized for foliage, and 
others for seeds or fruits. The species to which the name 
" sweet herb " should be restricted are those that have aro- 
matic foliage. Of such are sage (Fig. 206), hyssop, thyme, 
mints, tansy, horehound, savory (Fig. 207). Most of these 
plants are members of the mint family, or Labiatge, 
although some of them, as tansy and wormwood, are of 
the sunflower family. Those species of which the seeds are 

(331) 



332 



Culinary Herbs 



used are mostly of the parsley family, or Umbelliferse. Of 
such are caraway, coriander and dill. The larger number 
of the seed-crop plants is annual. 

The culinary herbs are of two classes as respects the 
general methods of cultivation : the annuals, or those that 
must be resown every year; and the perennials, or those 
that persist for a number of years. Even the perennial 
species, as sage and hyssop, 
should be resown or replanted 
frequently to keep the plants in 
vigorous condition, particularly 
if the climate is severe and if 
the plants are not given a little 
winter protection. 

It is well to grow all the kitch- 
en herbs together on one side of 
the garden, whether they are an- 
nual or perennial, and to have 
a clump of a particular herb 
each year in its accustomed 
place. The " herb garden,'^ in 
a place devoted to it, should 
oftener be part of the garden 
plan. A strip 3 or 4 feet wide 
can be made a collecting-place for the herbs ; and the place 
will have more than a commercial or culinarj^ interest. 

Most of the culinary herbs are of the easiest cultivation. 
They thrive in any loose warm and open soil. Although 
the growth is usually most profuse in rather heavy and 
moist soils, it is thought that the aromatic qualities, for 
which they are particularly esteemed, are more pronounced 





Sage (X Vs). 



207. Summer 
savory (X %)• 



Kitchen Herhs 



333 



in soils in which the plants do not make exuberant growth. 
The land should always be fertile enough, however, to pro- 
duce a full development of the plant. 

The strongest-growing perennial species may be propa- 
gated easily by division of the root. When the clump be- 
gins to fail, it is well to dig it up and discard all the older 
parts of the roots and to replant the younger and more 
vigorous parts. When such species are grown from seed, 
they are usually not strong enough to supply a heavy prod- 
uct until the second year, although some of them may give 
a cutting the first autumn if they are started early and if 
the land is good. Ordinarily a space 4 feet square will 
contain enough of any herb to supply a family, although 
twice that area may be desired for such popular species as 
sage, caraway and spearmint. 

The plants grown for herbage are usually cut when they 
are in full growth and before they have become woody. 
The stems are cut off near the ground and are then tied 
together in bundles and hung in a dry cool place, as an 
attic. The dried herbage is then in condition for use in 
winter. Continual cuttings of the young herbage may also 
be made during the season for current uses. It is evident 
that if the plants are cut severely and continuously they 
will be weakened, and that it may be necessary to raise a 
fresh stock to take their places. 

The species grown for seeds are allowed to ripen before 
the product is gathered. The plants are usually cut or 
pulled just before the seeds are ready to fall. The plants 
are then dried under cover and the seeds are threshed out. 

Seeds of the seed-cropping herbs and dried herbage of 
the true sweet herbs are usually to be had at drug stores, 



334 



Culinary Herhs 



but there is much, satisfaction in growing one's own. 
Sometimes there is a fair market for home-grown herbs. 

The following lists contain the leading species of sweet 
and culinary herbs cultivated in this country, arranged 
with reference to duration: 

Annual or hiennial, or grown as such 
anise, caraway (biennial), 

sweet basil, clary (biennial), 

summer savory, dill (biennial), 

coriander, sweet marjoram (biennial 

or perennial). 



Perennial 



sage, 

lavender, 

peppermint, 

spearmint, 

hyssop, 

thyme, 

marjoram, 

balm, 

catnip, 

pennyroyal. 



rosemary, 
horehound, 
fennel, 
lovage, 

winter savory, 

tansy, 

wormwood, 

costmar}^, 

tarragon. 



CHAPTEE XIV 



GLASS 

To protect and forward plants, various covers are used; 
and these covers, of every kind and description, are usu- 
ally spoken of as " glass,^' even though paper or cloth may 
sometimes be employed in place of glass. They comprise 
all the range of forcing-hills, coldframes, hotbeds and 
glasshouses. 

Every vegetable-gardener, however small his area, needs 
glass. Thereby is he enabled to secure a crop in advance 
of its normal season. He becomes, in a measure, independ- 
ent of season or even of climate. The vegetable-gardener 
is less subject to loss from vagaries of frost than is the 
fruit-grower. He can cover his plants. The plants are 
also more amenable to treatment : he can sometimes harden 
them off, so that they withstand frost. He can grow them 
at such times as to escape the dangerous season : the fruit- 
grower's plants must stand and take it. 

The purpose of glass is to forward plants in advance of 
their season or beyond it. This result is obtained by pro- 
tecting the plants from unpropitious weather or by actu- 
ally forcing them. An example of the former object is 
the protection in winter of hardy plants started in the 
fall. The plants are kept alive in the cold weather by 
means of the covering, but they do not grow. There are 

(335) 



336 



Glass 



two general types of forcing: the plants may be started 
under glass^ and then transplanted into the open ; they may 
be grown to maturity under glass. 

1. QUANTITY OF GLASS REQUIRED 

How much glass the vegetable-gardener needs depends 
(1) on how intensified are his operations, (2) in what sea- 
son he wants the major part of his crops, (3) the region, 
(4) the kinds of crops. These factors are largely deter- 
mined, in their turn, by the man's location with reference 
to market, and the price of labor and land. Very small 
areas sometimes have sufficient glass to cover them. 

Glasshouses are increasing in number and popularity. 
They are driving out hotbeds for the forcing of winter 
stuff. But for general vegetable-gardening, the coldframe 
and hotbed remain, although their relative importance is 
likely to diminish. These humble structures are desirable 
because they are cheap, because they allow the person 
quickly to change or modify his business (a great advan- 
tage on rented land), and because they can be removed 
when the spring forcing is accomplished, allowing the land 
to be used for other purposes. The growing of winter 
vegetables in the K'orth (under glass) is a special busi- 
ness, and is not discussed in this book. 

Vegetable-gardening glass is usually computed in sashes. 
A normal sash is 3 x 6 feet in surface area. Sashes are 
combined into frames. A frame is a box covered by four 
sash, — that is, an area 6 x 12 feet. For general and mixed 
vegetable-gardening, about twenty-five sash are sufficient 
for an acre of garden, considering that the plants are to 
be transplanted to the field, not matured under the sash. 



capacity of Frames 



337 



If one is growing particular crops, as tomatoes, fifteen sash 
may be sufficient. For the best kind of home gardening, 
when it is desired to mature spring lettuce and radishes 
under glass as well as to transplant stuff into the open, 
thirty-five to fifty sash may be needed to the acre. 

In growing plants for transplanting, a sash may be esti- 
mated to accommodate 400 to 500 cabbage and cauliflower 
plants, 300 to 400 tomatoes and eggplants, 600 to 800 let- 
tuces. When the plants are transplanted in the frames, 
only one-third to two-thirds these numbers can be accom- 
modated. If the plants are started very late and are not 
transplanted, as many as 800 tomato or cabbage plants 
can be grown under one sash. In general, one may expect 
to gain three weeks to one month on the crop of hardy 
things like cabbages, and two to three weeks on tomatoes. 
To gain two weeks on the crop, however, it is necessary 
to gain three or four weeks on the sowing. In extra-good 
hotbeds, greater gain can be secured ; but it is not common. 

In calculating the amomit of glass required, the gardener 
must remember that many of his plants may fail after they 
are set in the field. There are risks of frost, cold rains, 
droughts, worms, accidents. He may lose plants while 
they are still in the frames. The grower should start at 
least fifty per cent more plants than he expects to raise. 
The surplus may Joe left in the frames until the trans- 
planted subjects are thoroughly established and safe. 

The following sample estimate, by a gardener, illustrates 
the method of casting up one's outlay for the season's 
glass. It is an estimate for a market-garden of one acre, 
for a general line of vegetables. It supposes that half of 
the acre is to be set with plants from hotbeds : 



338 



Glass 



One-eightli acre to early cauliflower and cabbage, about 
2,000 plants ; if transplanted would require two 6 x 12 frames. 
200 to 250 plants being grown under each sash, or about 1,000 
plants from each frame. 

These frames may be used again for tomato plants for the 
same area, using about 450 plants. This will allow one sash 
for every 55 plants. Plants for this area may be grown in 
one frame, but would be crowded and not as stocky as if 
given more room. 

One frame may be in use at the same time for eggplants 
and peppers, two sash of each, growing 50 transplanted plants 
under each sash. 

Two frames will be required for cucumbers, melons and early 
squashes. 

If one wishes to grow extra-early lettuce, an estimate of 
60 to 70 heads may be made to a sash. 

It is assumed that celery and late cabbages are to be started 
in seed-beds in the open. 

If spinach is grown in frames, the sash used for one of 
the late crops above may be used through the following winter. 

This makes a total of five frames ; twenty sash and covers ; 
manure, calculating at least three or four loads to a frame. 
This is a liberal estimate of space, and should allow for all 
ordinary loss of plants, and for discarding the weak and 
inferior ones. It supposes that most or all the plants are to 
be transplanted once or more in the frames. Many gar- 
deners have less equipment of glass and do less transplanting. 

2. THE MAKING OF FRAMES 

In the planning of a coldframe or hotbed, the builder 
must have in mind the following objects to be attained: 
(1) sufficient and uniform supply of heat; (2) ample pro- 
tection from cold; (3) means for ventilation; (4) facili- 
ties for obtaining water; (5) plants to be near the glass, 
and yet to have head-room for growth of tall kinds; (6) 



Placing the Frames 



339 



ease and convenience of manipulation; (7) cheapness and 
durability. 

Location and exposure. 

Ideally, tlie place on which frames are set should slope 
gently to the south or southeast. The area should be well 
protected from the cold and prevailing winds. A wind- 
break is necessary. This may be a pronounced rise of 
land to the north or west, a building, a wall, or a hedge. 
If none of these shelters exists, a temporary one may be 
made. A board fence 5 to 8 feet high is the common 
resort; if it slants back somewhat, it provides a good sup- 
port for mats and sash leaned against it. A screen of 
cornstalks, evergreen boughs, or other material may serve 
the purpose. 

The frames should be near the buildings and easy of 
access. They need frequent attention, particularly in 
changeable weather. Frames far from the house, or which 
are cut off by snowdrifts or mud, are likely to suffer in 
critical times. Water supply should be at hand. If 
pipe-water cannot be had, a good well or cistern, with 
force-pump, should be provided. Some provision should 
also be made for warming the water in cold weather, for 
very cold water chills and delays the plants and wastes the 
heat of the bed. 

If land is sufficient and the garden area remains year 
by year in approximately the same place, it is advisable 
to have a permanent frameyard. The windbreaks, water 
supply and other accessories can then be well provided. 

Pits may be dug for the hotbeds and the sides stoned 
or bricked. These pits retain heat better than surface- 



340 



(jlass 



built beds, are less exposed to winds, and are permanent; 
but they are more expensive in the beginning. The pits 
can also be filled in autumn with manure or litter, and if 
this is pitched out at any time in winter or spring, an 
unfrozen area is at once ready for the making of the hot- 
bed. Pits should be tile-drained, unless the soil is very 
loose and the bottom is below the frost line of the sur- 
rounding unprotected land. If many frames are employed, 
they should extend in parallel rows, six or seven feet apart, 
so that a man walking between can water or tend two runs. 

Building the frame. 

The common type of frame is shown in Fig. 208. It 
is a little over 12 feet long, is 6 feet wide, and is covered 
with four 3x6 sash. It is sometimes made of ordinary 




208. A frame. In this case the frame is njortised together, so that the 
material can be taken apart and stored. 



Construction of Framss 



341 



boards loosely nailed together. If one expects to use cold- 
frames or hotbeds every year, however, it is advisable to 
make the frames of heavier stulf, well painted, and to join 

the parts by bolts 
or tenons, so that 
they may be taken 
apart and stored. 
Fig. 209 suggests 
methods of making 
the frames so that 
they may be taken apart. The pieces for the sash to slide 
on are made of stuff three inches wide mortised into the 
frame. These pieces have a strip or mounting nailed along 
their middle to hold the sash to its place. Fig. 210 (from 
Cornell Reading-Course Lesson) shows the details of a 
two-sash coldframe before the parts are nailed together. 

The depth of the frame must be governed largely by 
the plants it is desired to grow, and by the length of time 




209. A method of making a collapsible frame 




210. The five members of a two-sash frame. 



they are to remain in the bed. It is well to have the 
plants as near the glass as possible and yet give them room 
in which to grow. If the frame sets on top of the manure. 



342 



Glass 



the back side may be 12 to 15 inches high, and the front 
side 8 to 10 inches. 

3. COLDFRAMES AND FORCING-HILLS 

A coldframe has no bottom heat, except that which it 
receives from the sun; otherwise it is hke a hotbed. A 
coldframe is "used for three general purposes: (1) for 
the starting of plants early in spring; (2) for receiving 
partially hardened plants that have been started earlier 
in hotbeds and forcing-houses; (3) for wintering young 
cabbages, lettuce and other hardy plants sown in autumn. 

Coldframes are ordinarily placed near the buildings, 
and the plants are transplanted into the field when set- 
tled weather comes. . Sometimes, however, frames are 
made directly in the field where the plants are to remain, 
and the frames, and not the plants, are removed. When 
used for this latter purpose, the frames are made very 
cheap by running two rows of parallel planks through the 
field at a distance of six feet apart. The plank on the 
north is ordinarily 10 to 12 inches wide, and that on the 
south 8 to 10 inches. These planks are held in place 
by stakes, and the sash are laid across them. Seeds of 
radishes, beets, lettuce, and the like are then sown be- 
neath the sash, and when settled weather arrives the sash 
and planks are removed and the plants are growing natu- 
rally in the field. Half-hardy plants, as those men- 
tioned, may be started two or three weeks in advance 
of the normal season by this means. 

"When the heat is spent from hotbeds, they become 
coldframes. They can then be used, if empty, for the 
starting of late plants; or the plants may be hardened-off 



Frames and Forcing-hills 



343 




in them as they cool^ thus, perhaps, obviating the neces- 
sity of transplanting to other frames. 

Span-roof coldframes* are useful, as they allow better 
and more uniform conditions for the growing of plants 
than the ordi- 
nary frame. 
They are cov- 
ered with hot- 
bed sash laid on 
a framework, as 
seen in Fig. 
211, and the 
sashes pulled 

down from the span-root coldframe. 

top for ventilation. They are essentially forcing-houses, 
however, and the discussion of them is foreign to the pur- 
pose of this volume. 

Forcing -hills. 

A forcing-hill is an arrangement by means of which 
a single plant or a single hill of plants may be forced 
where it permanently stands. It is a small or "indi- 
vidual " coldframe. 

This type of forcing may be applied to perennial plants, 
as rhubarb and asparagus, or to annuals, as melons and 
cucumbers. Fig. 212 illustrates a common method of 
hastening the growth of rhubarb in the spring. A box 
with four removable sides, two of which are shown in 
end section in the figure, is placed about the plant in 
the fall. The inside of the box is filled with straw or 
litter, and the outside is banked thoroughly with any 



344 



Glass 




212. Forwarding of 
rhubarb in the field. 



refuse, to prevent the ground from freezing. When it 
is desired to start the plants, the covering is removed 
from both the inside and outside of the box, and hot 
manure is piled around the box to its 
top. If the weather is still cold, dry 
light leaves or straw may be placed 
inside the box, or a pane or sash of 
glass may be placed on top of the box, 
to answer the purpose of a coldframe. 
Ehubarb, asparagus, sea-kale and simi- 
lar plants may be advanced two to four 
weeks by this method of forcing. 
Some gardeners use old barrels or half-barrels in place of 
the box. The box, however, is better and handier, and 
the sides can be stored for future use. 

Plants that require a long season and which do not 
transplant readily, as melons and cucumbers, may be 
planted in forcing-hills in the field. One of these hills 
is shown in Fig. 213. The frame or mold is shown at 
the top. This mold is a box 
with flaring sides and no 
top or bottom, and provided 
with a handle. This mold 
is placed with the small end 
down at the point where the 
seeds are to be planted, and 
the earth is hilled up about 
it and firmly packed with 
the feet. The mold is then withdrawn, and a pane of glass 
is laid on the top of the mound to concentrate the sun^s 
rays, and to prevent the bank from washing down with the 




213. The making of an elevated 
forcing-hill. 



Forcing-hills 



345 



rains. A clod of earth or a stone may be placed on the pane 
to hold it down. This type of forcing-hill is not much 
made, because the bank of earth is likely to wash away, 
and heavy rain occurring when the glass is off will fill 
the hill with water and drown the plant. However, it can 
be used to very good advantage when the gardener can 
give it close attention. 

A forcing-hill is sometimes made by digging a hole in 
the ground and planting the 'seeds in the bottom of it, 
placing the pane of glass on a slight ridge or mound made 
on the surface. This method is less desirable than the 
other, because the seeds are placed in the poorest and cold- 
est soil, alid the hole is very likely to fill with water in 
the early days of spring. 

An excellent type of forcing-hill is made by the use of 
the hand-box, as shown in Fig. 214. This is a rectangu- 
lar box, without top or bottom, 
and a pane of glass is slipped 
into a groove at the top. The 
earth is banked slightly about 
the box, to hold it against 
winds and to prevent the water 
from running into it. If these 
boxes are made of good lumber and painted, they will last 
for many years. Any size of glass may be used, but a 
10 X 12 pane is as good as any for general purposes. 

After the plants are well established in these forcing- 
hills and the weather is settled, the protection is wholly 
removed, and the plants grow normally in the open. Forc- 
ing-hills are not well adapted to large-area work, as they 
require too much time in the tending. Neither do they 




346 



Glass 



have much advantage of protection from windbreaks, and, 
containing a less bod}^ of air, they do not give as early 
results as well-made coldframes. 

For starting plants in a small way, a glass-covered box 
in the kitchen window may answer very well. An incu- 
bator is useful for the germinating of seeds. 

4. HOTBEDS 

A hotbed has artificial bottom heat. This heat is 
ordinarily supplied by means of fermenting manure, but 
it may be obtained from other fermenting material, as 
tanbark or leaves, or from heat in flues and pipes. The 
hotbed is used for the very early starting of plants, and 
when the plants have outgrown the bed, or have become 
too thick, they may be transplanted into cooler hotbeds 
or into coldframes. Some crops, however, may be carried 
to full maturity in the hotl)ed itself, as radishes and let- 
tuce. The date at which the hotbed may be started with 
safety depends almost entirely upon the means at com- 
mand of heating it and on the skill of the operator. In 
the I^orthern States, where outdoor gardening does not 
begin imtil the first or the last of May, hotbeds are some- 
times started as early as January; but they are ordinarily 
delayed until early in March. In exposed places, it is 
well to have the glass as near the level of the ground as 
possible. 

Handling the horse manure. 

The heat for hotbeds is commonly supplied by the 
fermentation of horse manure. It is important that the 
manure be uniform in composition and texture, that it 



Mar-lire for Hotbeds 



347 



come from highly-fed horses, and is practically of the same 
age. As much as one-third or one-half of the whole ma- 
terial may be of litter or straw that has heen used in the 
bedding. If the mannre is very dense, it will not heat 
well, and it should have bedding, litter or well-decayed 
leaves mixed with it. 

The manure is accumulated in a long and shallow 
square-topped pile, not more than four or five feet high 
as a rule, and is then allowed to ferment. Better results 
are generally obtained if the manure is piled under cover. 
The manure should be moist, but not wet. If it is dry 
when piled, moisten it throughout. If it is very wet, it 
will usually remain cold until it begins to dry out. Some- 
times the addition of a little hen manure to one part 
of the pile will start the heating. If the weather is cold 
and fermentation does not begin, wetting a part of the 
pile with hot water may start it. 

The first fermentation is usually irregular, — it begins 
unequally in several places in the pile. To make the 
fermentation uniform, the pile may be turned, taking 
care to break up all hard lumps and to distribute the hot 
manure throughout the mass. It is sometimes necessary 
to turn the pile five or six times before it is finally used, 
although half this number of turnings is ordinarily suffi- 
cient. When the pile is steaming uniformly through- 
out, it is fit to be placed in the hotbed. From the first 
piling of the manure until it is fit to put in the bed will 
be a period, ordinarily, of two weeks. 

In some cases the material will not need to be turned 
to induce fermentation, particularly when the manure is 
from grain-fed horses. Sometimes the manure heats so 



348 



Glass 



quickly and so violently that it has to be wet to prevent 
it from burning, although the admixture of straw or 
litter with the manure will remedy the trouble. Each 
case is a law unto itself. 

Making the manure bed. 

Hotbed frames are sometimes set on top of the pile of 
fermenting manure, as shown in Fig. 215. The manure 
should extend some distance beyond the edges of the 

frame; otherwise the 
frame will become too cold 
about the outside, and the 
plants will suffer. It is 
preferable to have a pit 
l)eneath the frame in 

215. Hotbed with manure on top wllicll thc Ul a U U r C is 

placed. The pit should be 
a foot wider on either side than the width of the frame, 
and should be about two feet deep. Fig. 216 is a cross- 
section of a standard pit hotbed (H. Ness, Circ. 3, n. s., 
Tex. Exp. Sta.), showing the position and proportion of 
the manure. On the ground under a bed an inch or two of 
any coarse material is laid to keep the manure from the 
cold earth. On this, twelve to thirty inches of manure are 
placed. Above the manure is a thin layer of leaf -mold or 
some porous material, that will serve as a distributor of the 
heat, and above this are four or five inches of soft garden 
loam, in which the plants are to be grown. 

It is advisable to place the manure in the pit in layers, 
each stratum to be packed or settled down before another 
one is put in. These layers should be four to eight inches 




Heating with Manure 



349 



in thickness. By this means the mass is easily made 
uniform. 

Only by experience can one learn what is the proper 
body or texture of good hotbed manure. That with 
too much straw, and which therefore soon parts with its 
heat, springs up quickly when the pressure of the feet 
is removed. Manure with too little straw, and which 
therefore does not heat well or spends its heat quickly, 
packs down into a soggy mass underneath the feet. When 




216. A manure-heated hotbed. 



the manure has sufficient litter, it gives a springy feeling 
to the feet as a person walks over it, but does not fluiS up 
when the pressure is removed. 

The quantity of manure to be used depends (1) on 
its quality; (2) the season in which the hotbed is made; 
(3) the kind of plants; (4) the skill of the operator in 
managing the bed. Careless watering, by means of which 
the manure is kept soaked, will stop the heat in any hot- 
bed. The earlier the bed is made, the larger should be 



350 



Glass 



the quantity of manure. Hotbeds that are supposed to 
hold two months should have about two and one-half feet 
of manure, as a rule. This is the maximum. For a light 
hotbed to be used late in the season, six or eight inches 
may be sufficient. 

Various modifications of the common type of hotbed 
will suggest themselves. If the hotbed were high enough 
and broad enough to allow a man to work inside, we 



three feet of manure should be used. The house may be 
covered with hotbed sash held on a rude frame of scant- 
lings. These manure-heated houses are often very efficient, 
and are a good make-shift until such time as one can afford 
to put in flue or pipe heat. 

Pipe-lieated liotheds. 

Hotbeds may be heated by means of steam or hot water. 
They can be piped from the heater in a dwelling-house or 
greenhouse. Exhaust steam from a factory can often be 
used with very good results. Fig. 218 shows a hotbed 
with two pipes, in the positions 7, 7, below the bed. The 
soil is shown at 4. Doors in the end of the house, shown 
at 2, 2, may be used for ventilation or for admitting air 




217. Manure-heated forcing-house. 



would have a 
forcing - house. 
Such a structure 
is shown in Fig. 
217, upon one 
side of which the 
manure and soil 
are already in 
place. Two to 



Heating ivith Pipes and Flues 



351 




218. Pipe-heated hotbed. 



underneath the heels. The pipes should not he surrounded 
by earth, hut should run through a free air space. 

A flue-heated or pipe-heated hothed may he likened to a 
greenhouse bench, and the arrangement of pipin^]^ for the 
two should be similar. 
Two to four steam- or 
water-pipes are carried 
underneath the bed. If, 
however, one has plenty of 
exhaust steam, which is 
usually under consider- 
able pressure, it may be 
carried directly through 
the soil in ordinary drain 
pipes. It will rarely pay to put in a hot water or steam 
heater for the express purpose of heating hotbeds, for if 
such an expense is incurred, it will be better to make a 
forcing-house. 

Flue-heated beds. 

Hotbeds may be heated with hot-air flues with very 
good results. A home-made brick furnace may be con- 
structed in a pit at one end of the run and underneath a 
shed, and the smoke and hot air, instead of being carried 
directly upwards, are carried through a slightly rising 
horizontal pipe which runs underneath the beds. For 
some distance from the furnace, this flue may be made of 
brick or unvitrified sewer j)i]^e, but stovepipe may be 
used for the greater pa^^t of the run. The chimney is 
ordinarily at the farther end of the run. It should be 
high, to provide a good draft. If the run of beds is long, 



353 



Glass 



there should be a rise in the imderlyiiig pipe of at least 
one foot in twenty-five. The greater the rise in this pipe, 
the more perfect will be the draft. If the runs are not 
too long, the underlying pipe may return beneath the 
beds and enter a chimney directly over the back end of the 
fui'nace, and such a chimney^ being warmed from the fur- 
nace, will ordinarily have an excellent draft. 

The underlying pipe should occupy a free space or 
pit beneath the beds, and whenever it lies near to the floor 
of the bed or is very hot, it should be covered with asbestos. 




219. Cross-section of a flue-heated hotbed. 



The construction of a flue-heated hotbed is thus de- 
scribed by Xess (Tex. Exp. Sta.), and shown in Fig. 
219: "A furnace is constructed outside the frame and 
sunk about two feet below the level of the surface. From 
this furnace two lines of -i- to 6-inch vitrified sewer pipe 
are placed obhquely through the soil to the opposite end 
of the frame, where vent to the smoke from the furnace 



Hotbeds 



353 



is given on the outside of the frame. The pipes should 
run parallel at equal distances from the walls of the bed 
and each other, with a slant upward from the furnace to 
the chimney at the other end of the frame. They should 
be covered with a layer of earth sufficiently deep to secure 
as nearly as possible an equal distribution of the heat. 
The heat secured from this apparatus is much more diffi- 
cult to control than that from fermenting manure, but 
the construction may be made permanent with only the 
removal of the layer of earth, in which the seeds are sown 
for each new crop." 

Substitutes for glass. 

It will be noted that the bed in Fig. 219 is covered 
with muslin. On this point Ness writes : " Instead of 
glass, the sashes may be covered with cotton cloth, satu- 
rated with pure raw linseed oil. Before using such cloth, 
care must be taken that the linseed oil is thoroughly 
dried, as the fumes given* oif by the too fresh oils are 
liable to kill or severely injure the plants, when enclosed 
in such an atmosphere." 

Various prepared papers and fabrics have been advised 
from time to time to substitute for glass on late-started 
hotbeds or in the Southern States, and on coldframes. 
Some of them may give much satisfaction, reducing cost, 
breakage, and labor of handling. For late work or warm 
climates it may not be necessary to oil the cloth. 

"Most commercial growers in the South [writes F. S. 
Earle, Bull. 108, Ala. Exp. Sta.] use cotton cloth for 
covering coldframes, as it is much cheaper than glass, 
and is much easier to handle in opening and closing the 



354 



Glass 



beds (Fig. 220). Ordinar}' unbleached, double-width or 
ten-fourths wide sheeting is used. One side is nailed fast 
to the back side of the bed or in double beds to the ridge- 
pole, and the other is nailed between two 1 x 2-inch strips, 
thus making a square roller on which the curtain is rolled 
up when it is wished to open the bed. By starting with 

one short and one 
long piece, so as 
to break joints, 
such a roller can 
be made any 
desired length. It 
will be necessary 
to provide some 
extra cover for 
each coldf rame 
to use on very cold 
nights, for the 
single thickness 
of cloth will not 
turn more than a slight frost. The beds should always 
be well banked at the ends and sides with earth.-*^ 

Hothed covers. 

Some protection, other than the glass or muslin, must 
be given to early hotbeds. They need covering on every 
cold night, and sometimes the entire day in very severe 
weather. Very good material for covering the sash is mat- 
ting, such as is used for carpeting floors. Old pieces of 
carpet may also be used. Burlap makes excellent cover; 
it may be doubled : and it may have straw, shavings or 




220. Cloth-corered beds, showing the cloth rolled 
up in the day. 



Hotbed Covers 



355 



wool quilted in it. Various hotbed mattings are sold by 
dealers in gardeners^ supplies. 

In addition to the coverings of straw or matting, it is 
sometimes necessary to provide board shutters to protect 
the beds, particularly if the plants are started very early. 
These shutters are made of half-inch or five-eighths-inch 
lumber, and are the same size as the sash — 3 x 6 feet. 
They are used above the matting to keep it dry and to 
prevent it from blowing off. In some cases they are used 
without matting. 

In very cold weather, it is sometimes necessary to keep 
the mats and shutters on the hotbeds for two or three 
days at a time. During this time, when the plants are in 
comparative darkness, they are likely to become somewhat 
soft and tender, and great care must be taken that they 
are not scalded when the covers are removed and the sun 
comes out. The stockier and the tougher the plants are 
grown, the less is the danger of sun-scalding; but after a 
long period of cloudy weather, this danger is greater and 
the operator must watch his beds closely. 

Hotbeds are usually more difficult to manage than forc- 
ing-houses, since the operator can be inside the forcing- 
house whatever the weather. In very cold and windy 
weather, hotbeds cannot be opened. The operator works 
from the outside. In many of the Plains regions, the 
strong winds make it difficult to handle the hotbed sash. 
In such case, the cheap forcing-house structure made of 
frames and heated either with fermenting manure or 
with pipes is more advantageous. 

Beginners are likely to start the hotbed too soon. The 
age of the plant does not count for so much as its stocki- 



356 



Glass 



ness and vigor. If, therefore, the hotbed is started so 
early tliat the plants have to be " slowed up " and stunted 
in order to hold them until the field is ready, very little 
is gained. In the Xorthern States, cabbages and cauli- 
flower may be started with profit about six weeks before 
the field is expected to be ready; tomatoes, six to seven 
weeks; onions and beets, four to six weeks. 

In summer, after the frames are stripped, the old beds 
may be used for the growing of various delicate crops, as 
melons or half-hardy flowers. In this position, the plants 
can be protected in autumn. As already suggested, the 
pits should be cleaned in the fall and filled with litter, to 
facilitate the work of makins^ the new bed in the winter 
or spring. 

Sowing seeds in the hofbed. 

Ordinarily the manure will heat very vigorously for a 
few days after it is placed in the bed. A soil thermome- 
ter should be thrust through the earth to the manure, and 
the frame kept tightly closed with sash and covers. When 
the temperature is passing below 90°, seeds of the warm 
plants, like tomatoes, may be sown, and when it passes 
below 80° or 70°, the seeds of cooler plants may be sown. 
By the time the beds are ready for planting, the weed 
seeds probably will have germinated. Loosen and aerate 
the soil before sowing^. Sow in rows four to six inches 
apart. 

More and more, gardeners are coming to start all plants 
in boxes or flats, for the plants can then be carted to the 
field or put on the market with ease and with little loss. 
The flats can also be shifted from one part of the frame 



Handling from the Beds 



357 



to another, or from bed to bed, as conditions may 
require. 

Vegetables that do not transplant well, as melons and 
cucumbers, may be grown in pots, old berry boxes, or on 
inverted sods, rather than directly in the hotbed earth. 
Pots are best. 

The following practice in the handling of muskmelon 
plants from hotbed to field is the experience of a commer- 
cial grower of the crop : 

Sow seed in flats in greenhouse about four weeks before 
plants should be set out, saj^ April 20th for region of New 
York, in flats 2^2 in. deep and with 2 in. of soil ; use sifted 
soil, which should be rather sandy or leaf-loam, and cover 
with burlap (if fertilizer bag is used, be sure to wash before 
using) . Keep the burlap damp but be careful not to over- 
water. As soon as the melons are up, say 1 in., take up 
very carefully by using a little stick or an old table fork. 
Sow plenty of seed and always throw away all poor plants 
and have the plants uniform. Use 2i/^-in. flower-pots. If they 
are dry, soak them in a tub of hot water to kill the germs. 
Place the pots on the greenhouse bench or in a coldframe 
with just a little hot manure sprinkled on the bottom and 
a little soil or sand or sifted coal ashes. Level up and place 
the pots level ; sift on some good earth, one-third soil, one-third 
sand, one-third well-rotted manure; sift this carefully over 
the pots and be careful not to pack the earth in the pots; 
take a piece of board, say % in. thick, 2 in. wide, and 12 in. 
long, and stroke off until you see the top of the pots. Now 
begin to transplant. Put one good plant in a pot. If it is 
cloudy you will not need to shade the plants, but if the sun 
shines they should be shaded by day and the shading taken 
off at night. Keep a temperature from 75 to 90 degrees to 
start with ; then as the plants start nicely, give more ventila- 
tion. As soon as the pot is full of roots, plants should be 



I 



358 



Glass 



transplanted, nsually about the fourth week. Sometimes they 
^Yill have to be held back if it threatens frost; if so, give 
plenty of ventilation. 

yovr we are ready for the field, which should be a good 
warm well-prepared soil with a good sod. or if not some 
manure plowed under. Now drag or roll down. We use a 
one-horse moldboard plow to open the furrow, going both 
ways in the furrow. Apply any good manure, loaded in a 
manure-spreader ; use some canvas on each side so that the 
manure is thrown in the furrow. Level off, then put on fer- 
tilizer, 50 to 100 lbs. 10% phosphate and potash. Close up 
the furrow with a plow. Level the ridge with a plank or pole ; 
ridge when finished should be 3 or 4 inches high. 

Previous to these operations, someone should have been 
taking the plants out of the pots, which ought to have been 
well watered the night before. Baskets are best in hauling 
the plants to the field. Set the basket at an angle of about 
45 degrees ; take the plants out of the pots, handling carefully. 
Then carry the basket to the field. Straddle one row and 
plant two on each side of wagon. This is done by a boy 
who is careful to carry his basket on one arm. using the other 
hand to pick out the plant. Take hold of the ball of dirt, 
hand to the planter who walks straddle of the ridge, using 
a garden trowel. Press plants in with the hands or with the 
feet slightly. Before planting, plants should be sprayed with 
bordeaux and arsenate of lead. 

Plant in rows 7 ft. apart and 20 to 24 in. in the row. Cul- 
tivate with a spring-tooth cultivator which does not tear out 
the vines as does the five-tooth cultivator. Never cultivate 
deep for melons. 

5. THE MANAGEMENT OF FRAMES 

Only by experience can one learn how to manage a 
hotbed. There are a few principles and cautions, however, 
which will help. 



Handling of Beds 



359 



The objects to be sought, so far as the plants are con- 
cerned, are specimens (1) ready at the required season; 
(2) stocky; and (3) that have made a continuous healthy 
growth. 

The dangers to avoid are (1) the chilling of the plants; 
(2) too hot and close atmosphere, which tends to make 
the plants soft; (3) crowding, which tends to make the 
plants weak and spindling; (4) growing plants too far 
from the light, which also tends to make them soft and 
weak; (5) the scalding of the plants by the sun, an 
injury very likely to occur when the sun comes out 
after a long " spelP' of dark or cold weather; (6) the 
wilting of the plants, due to too great heat and too little 
moisture. 

Translated into the actual management of a hotbed, 
these objects may be grouped as follows: (1) maintain- 
ing the heat; (2) watering; (3) ventilating; (4) harden- 
ing-off. 

Above all things, the plant should be stocky (and 
healthy) when put in the field. A stocky plant is com- 
paratively short and thick, able to stand alone, and has a 
normal bright green color throughout. Plants not stocky 
are said to be " leggy " or " drawn," since their general 
tendency is to grow too long and weak for their bulk. A 
stocky plant, however, may be stunted. The perfect plant 
is both stocky and freshly vigorous. 

The maintenance of the heat in the ordinary hotbed de- 
pends primarily on the quality and the amount of manure ; 
but one can do something by subsequent management to 
maintain it. Heat will ordinarily fail sooner if the hotbed 
is above the ground and much exposed to winds. It may 



360 



Glass 



also be lessened by careless watering, particularly by soak- 
ing the manure. Manure that is too heavy and concen- 
trated may heat violently, and wetting it may tend to cool 
it to the point at which plants can grow; but a better 
way is to mix leaves or other litter with the manure, 
thereby preventing too rapid fermentation. 'Not only 
should the heat from the fermenting manure be main- 
tained, but care should be taken to prevent too much of it 
from escaping. This is an important caution in very cold 
nights and windy weather, at which time the frame should 
be protected by mats or other covering. A cold and wet 
soil also tends to lessen the heat in the hotbed. For this 
reason, hotbeds should be placed in a sandy or gravelly 
place, if possible; or if not, the greatest precaution should 
be taken to insure perfect drainage. 

]Ycdcring should be performed with caution and care. 
Careless watering tends (1) to pack or to puddle the soil, 
(2) to chill the plants, and (3) to soak the manure and 
to check its fermentation. If watering is from a hose, the 
danger of packing the soil is greater than with a watering- 
pot, since the water is applied with greater force. Hotbed 
soils should be rather loose and fibrous to prevent the 
puddling. As compared with outdoor or field conditions, 
the amount of water applied to a hotbed is usually exces- 
sive, and the physical texture of the soil is likely to be 
injured unless one exercises considerable care. 

It is better, as a rule, not to water hotbeds toward night 
or when the temperature is falling, for the application of 
water and the subsequent evaporation tend still further to 
cool the bed. It is particularly inadvisable to allow the 
plants to go into the night with wet foliage. This cau- 



Watering and Ventilating 



361 



tion applies with special force to cucumbers, melons and 
other " warm " plants ; and also to the early season, when 
it is necessary to keep the frame close. It is commonly 
better to water in the morning, or at least when there is 
still enough sun heat left to warm the soil before night- 
fall. It is well also to avoid ice-cold water. The water 
should have a temperature of 60° to 65°, if possible, par- 
ticularly for warm-growing plants and early in the season. 
Avoid dribbling or merely wetting the surface. The soil 
should be wet thoroughly at each watering, and not wet 
again until the plants need it; 
but on the other hand, one should 
avoid drenching. 

Ventilation is important, (1) to 
dry the air, (2) to aid in control- 
ling the temperature. 

Plants kept close and wet tend 

to grow too tall and soft, and to 221. The sash raised for 

lack in stockiness. On pleasant ventilation. ^ 

and sunny days, ventilation should be given by raising the 
sash, resting it on a notched block (Fig. 221), or by sliding 
down the sash. The general tendency with beginners is to 
ventilate too little rather than too much. One is likely to 
judge the temperature by the wind and air about his 
face and ears, whereas the hotbed, being on the surface 
of the ground, is considerably warmer and more pro- 
tected. 

Whenever the air in the bed is so moist that drops of 
water collect on the panes, ventilation should be given if 
the temperature will permit. In fact, it is the aim of 
good gardeners not to have the atmosphere very moist 




362 



Glass 



when the temperature is low and ventilation cannot be 
given. As the plants grow, more and more ventilation 
should be given until finally in sunny days the sash may 
be stripped from the frames. In this way the plants be- 
come accustomed to the lower temperature and to nor- 
mal conditions of the atmosphere; they become "hard- 
ened." Careful attention to ventilation is one of the 
important means of making plants stocky. 

Hardening-ojf is also promoted by giving the plants 
plenty of room. As soon as they begin to crowd, some 
of them may be pulled out, or better, all of them may be 
transplanted. At the transplanting, it may be well to 
transfer the plants to a somewhat cooler and more airy 
frame. With celery and some other plants, it is often 
allowable to shear the tops, cutting off a fourth or a 
fifth of the length of the plant to make it branch and 
thicken. Plants grown in pots, berry boxes, oyster buck- 
ets are likely to be more stocky than those grown directly 
in the soil of the hotl)ed, since they have more room; 
and such plants may not need transplanting. If it is 
found that the heat is failing, it will be necessary to 
harden-off the plants more rapidly. 

Certain plants, of which lettuce, cabbage and cauliflower 
are common examples, can be so completely hardened-off 
as to withstand considerable frost; and in this toughened 
condition they may be carried over two or three weeks of 
cold weather before it is safe to transplant them into the 
open. The general tendency is to do little transplanting in 
the frames because of the high price of labor, but trans- 
planting is always advantageous to the plants, particu- 
larly if they are started very early. 



Carrying Plants Over Winter 



363 



Wintering autumn-sotvn plants. 

It has been said (page 342) that one nse of coldframes 
is to carry fall-sown plants over winter and to have them 
ready for transplanting into the field very early in the 
spring. The plants are not to grow in winter: they are 
only protected. Hardy plants (lettuce, cabbage, kale, 
cauliflower) are used for this purpose. 

Seeds are sown in autumn, and when the plants have 
grown four or five weeks they are ready to be transplanted 
into frames. It is not well that they make much growth 
in bulk after transplanting to the frames ; but they should 
secure a good root-hold before freezing weather comes. 
Some persons sow the seeds directly in the frames, but 
better results are usually obtained if the plants are made 
extra stocky by transplanting. All soft, weak and imper- 
fect plants are likely to be destroyed by the cold. Very 
young and flabby plants usually perish. Those too old 
tend to run to seed in spring. Only by experience can one 
determine the proper age at which the plants should go 
into the winter; and this experience is likely to vary with 
different varieties of the same vegetable. A plant which 
has begun to thicken up and to show signs of a tendency 
to form a head usually runs to seed in spring. Cabbage 
plants with three or four true leaves should be able to 
pass the winter and to give satisfactory results the fol- 
lowing year. The novice should undertake these experi- 
ments in a small way, particularly at the North, where 
the practice is not common and the results are precarious. 

Keep the frames uncovered until stiff freezing weather 
comes. Then use sash and covers. Gradually the plants 



364 



Glass 



and soil may freeze. Give freely of ventilation. Strip 
the frames on all fine days. If the ground is frozen, the 
plants may stand several days under a cover of snow on 
the sash; but if the ground is soft, so that root actibn 
goes on, the plants should not be kept close and dark for 
more than a day or two. 

In the middle States, the plants are sometimes carried 
over winter without frames, if they are in a protected 
place. As far south as Norfolk, cabbages are planted in 
the field in late fall. Check all winter growth, prevent 
sudden thawing if possible, try to avoid sun-scalding. 



CHAPTEE XV 



THE LAND AND ITS TREATMENT 

Soil and climate are determining factors in the locat- 
ing of a vegetable-garden; and if the garden is a com- 
mercial enterprise, the market adds a third factor. The 
gardener may control the climate for the plants, at certain 
stages, and this subject we have considered in Chapter 
XIV under the name of Glass/' 

Good market-gardening land is " quick.'' It warms up 
early in spring; it comes speedily into workable condition 
after a rain; it is easy to keep in good tilth; it responds 
quickly to fertilizing materials. Its physical condition is 
more important than its original richness in plant-food: 
the latter can be added. In the determination of a soil for 
vegetable-gardening purposes, two coordinate factors are 
to be considered — the structure or physical make-up, and 
the content of plant-food. 

Most general market-gardens are on sandy loams. A 
few crops, of which onions and celery are examples, de- 
mand particular types of soils for best results; but if one 
has a deep and uniform sandy soil, one can make an ideal 
garden of it, other things being equal. If the land is well 
drained and if rainfall is sufficient, this sandy land can be 
made immensely productive by a combination of three 
things, — good tillage, the incorporation of plant-fiber or 

(365) 



366 The Land and Its Treatment 



liiimiis, tlie direct addition of plant-food. When thus 
ameliorated, it becomes a sandy loam. 

Muckland gardening has come to be almost a special 
department of the business in recent years, but this en- 
terprise grows special or particular crops r.nd can hardly 
be called general market-gardening. Eeclaimed swamps 
usually afford excellent land for vegetables, if the area 
can be thoroughly well drained, so that it is " early," and 
if the vegetable-matter or peat is well decomposed and 
comminuted. Soils that are nearly all muck have little 
body, and suffer from drought; these are mostly the de- 
posit of peat and moss bogs. The fine loams that have 
accumulated in beds of shallow ponds or lakes are usually 
ideal vegetable-garden lands, provided the area is not too 
frosty. 

Mucklands differ in productiveness, as do other lands. 
A good muck naturally grows a heavy stand of trees or 
other herbage. The mucks that dry out in midsummer 
are to be avoided unless a stream can be diverted through 
them. It is necessary to drain mucks so that there is no 
standing water, and the water-table should be two to three 
feet deep; but the ditches or a brook should hold enough 
water to prevent drought. It is the common opinion that 
mucks are very rich, but this is usually true only as re- 
spects organic matter and nitrogen; much of the heavy 
yield is due to the physical condition and the constant 
supply of moisture. Muckland gardeners use fertilizers 
and manures freely. The potash addition usually should 
be liberal and probably also the phosphoric acid. Poorly 
handled and unfertilized muck areas are likely to fail 
rapidly. Onions, celery, lettuce are the main crops, but 



Lands for Vegetable-Gardening 



367 



other crops thrive, particularly on old and well-consoli- 
dated mncklands, as spinach, carrot, horse-radish, pars- 
nip and asparagus when the water-table is low enough. 

The land to avoid for vegetable-gardening is hard clay. 
It is cold and late. Plants start slowly in it. It cannot 
be worked when either wet or dry; and the period in 
which it can be tilled is so short that much labor and 
equipment are required to enable one to handle it quickly 
and efficiently. Clay is excellent for some fruits (particu- 
larly pears and plums) and for some general farm crops; 
but it is not the land for vegetable-growing. However, a 
friable clay loam may be excellent: this loamy condition 
may be obtained from hard clay soil by judicious tillage, 
the incorporation of humus, the addition of amendments 
in special cases, and by underdraining. Clay loams are 
good lands for main-season crops of many kinds, as cab- 
bage, pea, bean. 

Vegetable-gardening land should be fertile. It should 
contain much plant-food material ; and this material should 
be quickly available, for on its availability depends the 
earliness or " quickness to a great extent. The plant 
should grow quickly and continuously. Slow-growing and 
intermittent-growing vegetables may not only fail to reach 
the market or the table at the desired time, but they are 
usually poor in quality. To secure this quick growth, the 
land should be thoroughly prepared before the plants are 
put on it; and in most cases, an application of concen- 
trated (or commercial) fertilizer will help. 

It is usually more profitable to secure land already in 
productive condition than to take that of inferior quality 
and to improve it. This is true of all intensive farming; 



368 The Land and Its Treatment 



for such farmirig demands rapid, positive, and large 
results. The closer one is to his market, the smaller his 
area, and the greater the variety of crops he is to grow, the 
greater is the necessity of securing land in prime condi- 
tion. Yet, so important is the market for these products 
that the wise gardener sometimes buys an accessible piece 
of land even though it is not the best and puts extra effort 
into the improvement of it. 

If one has small capital, he may not be able to obtain 
highly productive land. In such case, one takes land 
either naturally inferior or run down. It is said to be im- 
practicable to attempt to reclaim run-down lands. This, 
kind of advice has been over-emphasized. If run-out land 
lies right and is naturally well drained, it can be brought 
into profitable condition, in most cases, with compara- 
tively little trouble and expense, if only the person goes 
at it right. It requires time and patience. The first thing 
is to till well and to add fiber (preferably by means of 
clover at the North). The common notion that commer- 
cial fertilizer is the first resort in such cases is usually an 
error. The fertilizer is for the purpose of adding plant- 
food, not of ameliorating the soil. If market-gardening is 
attempted on run-down land, the operator should choose 
the best part of the area for his more intensive efforts, 
giving it what manure he has and bestowing on it his best 
efforts in tillage. The remainder of the place can then be 
slowly brought into condition by cover-cropping, rotation, 
liming, and other cheaper means. Four or five years 
should suffice to bring the average worn-out land into 
good condition, without great expenditure of capital. 
The " run-down character of a farm is usually more a 



Dr^aining the Lands 



369 



matter of dilapidated fences and buildings, poor drainage, 
weedy fields and slovenly appearance, than of exhanstion 
of plant-food. 

1. THE AMELIORATION OF THE LAND 
Land that is " qnick is in good physical condition. It 
is finely pulverized, " mealy,^^ mellow, deep. It is un- 
profitable to apply expensive plant-food to poorly tilled 
and intractable land. The first efforts, therefore, must 
be given to drainage, tillage, the addition of fiber, rotation. 

Drainage. 

The best drainage is provided by nature; that is, land 
naturally well drained comes into condition more quickly, 
as a rule, and is in more continuous good tilth than that 
which it is necessary to drain artificially. However, the 
very best results may be secured by a good system of tile- 
drainage. 

Underdraining is practiced for two purposes — to carry 
off the superfluous water, and to improve the physical 
structure of the soil. All low and boggy lands need to be 
drained for the first purpose. Very stiff clay lands, which 
are normally dry and hard, usually can be much improved 
by a good system of underdrains. The reason of this is 
simple. If water stands long in clay lands, it tends to 
cement or to puddle the soil. If the superfluous water is 
quickly taken off, however, this cementing or puddling 
does not take place. The soil is thereby looser or more 
friable. This friable condition enables the soil to hold 
more moisture than when it is hard and brick-like. It 
therefore results that draining to remove the superfluous 



370 



The Land and Its Treatment 



water puts the land in condition to hold more capillary 
moisture in its own tissues, and improves it for agricul- 
tural purposes. 

For vegetahle-cardeninii' purposes, particularly if quick- 
est results are desired, it is necessary to underdrain hard 
clay lands, even if they are not wet. It makes them work- 
able early in the spring after rains, and enables the plants 
to obtain a quicker foothold. These same lands might 
be used for orchards, however, without underdraining, and 
they might also be very productive of general farm crops ; 
but in such cases the crops may occupy the land for a 
term of j^ears, and very early results are not essential. 

For temporary purposes, surface drains may be em- 
ployed, or the land may he ridged so that the surface 
water is taken off in the dead-furrows. This surface drain- 
age, however, results only in carrying off superfluous water 
and docs not have the effect of ameliorating the land. 
Surface drains are temporary creeks. 

In most cases, it is better and cheaper in the end to 
use tile underdrains. Board drains were formerly some- 
times used, but they are not so efficient nor so permanent. 
In stony countries, excellent drains may be made by par- 
tially filling the ditch with stones, particularly if flat 
stones are to be had so that a conduit can be laid in the 
bottom. Such drains not only provide the advantages 
of underdrainage, but also afford a means of disposing 
of superfluous stone. If they have a good fall, and care is 
exercised not to fill the spaces between the stones with 
earth, they may be nearly or quite as efficient as tile drains. 

The deeper the drains, the deeper will be the ameliorat- 
ing effect on the soil and the greater the area they drain. 



Drainage. Tillage 



371 



As a matter of practice, however, it is found that 4 feet 
is iisiiallY the maximura depth, and about 3 feet the mini- 
mum. Wet hinds, or very hard clay, should have drains 
at a distance of not more than 2 or 3 rods, if the lands are 
to be put in the very best condition for market-gardening 
purposes. It may be advisable, however, to use such lands 
for the later, cheaper and general-purpose crops rather 
than for the very early ones if the gardener has other land 
that can be tilled for the crops desired for the early 
market. 

Tillage. ' 

At present great emphasis in agricultural practice is 
placed on tillage. AVe have passed through that era in 
which we have looked to recipes and special practices for 
the improving of the land. The fundamental considera- 
tion is to till: the later and incidental thing is to fer- 
tilize the land. 

We till (1) to prepare the land to receive the crop ; and 
(2) to maintain the soil in good condition for the growth 
of the crop. 

To prepare for the crop, the land should be loosened 
and pulverized as deep as ordinary roots go. To maintain 
the soil in ideal condition, the surface should be tilled or 
stirred .as often as it becomes crusted or compacted. It 
is essential that every farmer keep in mind the differences 
between preparation-tillage and maintenance-tillage, for 
these ideas are associated with two classes of effort. Cul- 
tivatino- should be thoudit of as maintenance-tillao^e, not 
as preparation tillage. 

1. The tillage of preparation insists that the land be 



372 



The Land and Its Treahnent 



broken and pulverized. The depth to which this pulveriza- 
tion or plowing shall extend must be determined for each 
particular case : it depends on the character of the land 
and the crop. Land that is very hard^ or in which there 
is a high sub-soil, usually needs to be plowed deep; the 
effort must be to deepen the soil. Sandy or leachy lands 
may need to be plowed shallow and approximately the 
same depth every year : the effort is to compact the under 
soil and thereby to prevent the leaching. The root-crops 
demand deep soil, that the roots may grow long and sym- 
metrical. This is emphatically true with such long-grow- 
ing roots as parsnips, late beets, carrots and horse-radish. 
Once it was the general advice that land be plowed deep. 
But neither deep plowing nor shallow plowing is the unit. 
The depth of plowing is a question of conditions. 

It is a favorite practice with gardeners to plow in the 
fall. There are three objects of fall plowing: (1) To 
render the land earlier in the spring; (2) to be fore- 
handed with the work; (3) to improve the physical char- 
acter of the soil. Land plowed in fall usually can be 
worked several days earlier than that plowed in spring. 
It dries out sooner. Especially is this true of stiff and 
loamy lands. Clay lands may be much improved by being 
plowed in the fall, so that the weather may break down 
and slack the lumps. It is important, however, that such 
land should contain more or less vegetable matter; other- 
wise it may run together and puddle during the winter 
season and be difficult to manage in spring. If the land 
bears stubble of grain or grass, or if it has a covering of 
manure, such danger is averted. If land is clean and in 
good condition, it will not need to be plowed again in 



Ridging and Suh-soilirig 373 

the spring, but can be worked down with heavy tools, like 
the spading harrows ; but this spring working must not be 
delayed. Whenever land is needed very early in the 
spring, it is advisable to plow it in fall. This remark 
applies with little force to light and sandy lands, for they 
can ordinarily be plowed very early. 

Lands may be made earlier to work if they are thrown 
into beds or ridges by the fall plowing, so that the dead- 
furrows lie every eight or ten feet. The surface water 
is then carried off and the ridges stand so high that they 
dry out quickly. This operation is sometimes spoken of 
as trenching, but it is more properly ridging. The term 
trenching should be reserved for its legitimate use to 
designate the spading up or loosening up of the land 
deeper than the original furrow. Eidging and trenching 
are only special practices. 

Sub-soiling is a frequent practice in market-gardening 
lands. It is advisable in lands that are hard or that have 
a high sub-soil, and also for the long root-crops, which de- 
mand a deep soil in which to perfect their growth. Sub- 
soiling is not a permanent corrective, for the soil settles 
back into its original and hard condition, and the opera- 
tion must be repeated. The fundamental corrective for 
such lands is underdraining and incorporation of humus. 
The growing of clover or alfalfa, which sends its roots 
deep into the soil, is also a great aid. But even with all 
these aids, sub-soiling may be very useful in certain cases. 
The sub-soil plow does not turn a furrow; it merely 
breaks the bottom of the original furrow. It is drawn by 
a separate team and follows in the furrow immediately be- 
hind the first plowman. 



374 Tlie Land and Its Treatment 

2. The tillage* of maintenance should occur at least as 
frequently as once in ten days for the best market-garden 
conditions. Surface-tillage enables the land to drink in 
the water of rainfall. It also saves the soil water by 
hindering evaporation : it maintains a loose and dry layer 
that acts as a mulch to the moister soil beneath. The 
depth of this mulch must be determined by the character 
of the soil, kind of crop, frequency of tillage, and char- 
acter of tools; but, as a rule, from three to four inches of 
loosely stirred earth is sufficient. It also solves the diffi- 
culty of weeds. 

The soil in the surface-mulch is relatively dry, and it 
is moved so often that roots do not secure a foot-hold in 
it. It is therefore out of use for the time being as a 
source of plant-food ; but it is more useful as a conservator 
of moisture than as plant-food. Its nutriment comes into 
use when it is turned under the following season, and it is 
also carried down by the rains, particularly by those of 
spring and fall. 

All tillage of preparation — all fitting of the land — 
should be completed before the crop is put in : thereafter, 
only the surface-mulch is to be kept in repair. But many 
times the preparation-tillage is not completed in its season, 
and the land must be fitted after the crop is sown by 
means of deep and heavy cultivating; it is usually a loss 
of effort and efficiency when preparation-tillage and main- 
tenance-tillage must be performed at the same time. 

The rainfall of the growing season is often insufficient 
for the crop. The plants draw on the moisture stored in 
the soil by the winter rains and snows. Therefore, it is 
exceedingly important to save this winter rainfall, and this 



Adding the Fiber 



375 



is accomplished by fitting the soil and making the surface- 
mulch the moment the land is dr}^ enough to work in spring. 
Even if the land is not to be used until June, it should be 
fitted early, and lightly harrowed at frequent intervals 
before the crop is planted. The principles and practices 
of dry-farming, which is the recourse in non-irrigable 
semi-arid regions, should be understood by all farmers. 

Addition of humus. 

Land is rapidly improved by the incorporation of fiber. 
This fiber is obtained by plowing under any kind of 
vegetation or organic matter, as rye, clover, manure or 
the refuse of the garden. When this fiber decays it be- 
comes humus. Tlie humus improves the physical condi- 
tion of the soil by making it loose, open and mellow; by 
enabling it to hold moisture; by preventing the puddling 
or cementing of clay soils; by decreasing the heat of the 
surface in summer; and by improving the chemical char- 
acter. Humus itself contains plant-food. It also affords 
solvent acids. If it is derived from leguminous plants, it 
also adds nitrogen. The chief reason for the almost ex- 
travagant use of stable manures by market-gardeners is 
the addition of humus. Lands thus manured year after 
year become quick and amenable to treatment. Fertilizers 
Avork speedily in them. The lands can be tilled at almost 
any time in the growing season, and when one crop is off 
another can be put in quickly. 

In the addition of plant-fiber much will be gained if it 
is thoroughly decomposed. It thereby becomes quickly 
incorporated with the soil, and its plant-food soon becomes 
available. This is the explanation of the general desire of 



376 Tlie Land and lis Treatment 



market-gardeners to have what they call " short or well- 
rotted manure, and also the common practice of com- 
posting manures and refuse. 

Composting consists in piling the various materials to- 
gether in long, low, flat-topped piles, which may catch 
and retain the rainfall, and then forking over two or more 
times in the season. If the materials are well disinte- 
grated and mixed, they are in fit condition to he put on 
the land. Tomato vines, potato vines and even corn stalks, 
which are too raw and coarse to apply directly, may be 
made into useful and valuable material when they have 
been composted for several months or a year; although if 
serious diseases infest the refuse, the material would bet- 
ter be burned. The addition of quick-lime hastens the de- 
composition of raw materials. The florist, who must have 
his soils in perfect condition, is familiar with methods of 
composting, for he usually provides his soils a year in ad- 
vance, rotting his sod for this purpose. 

Rotation. 

One great value of the rotation of crops is that it adds 
fiber and humus. It is probable that there is a tendency 
to use stable manure in excess in garden lands; that is, 
the same results in the incorporation of humus can be had 
in many cases more cheaply by the growing of catch-crops. 
Particular^ is this true of those areas some distance from 
the market and in which it is not necessary to practice 
rapid succession of market crops. With the passing of 
the great city stables, in recent days, substitutes must be 
found for the barn manures in the market-garden. 

Land that receives identical treatment year by year 



Value of B of at ion 



377 



tends to depreciate. A rotation is useful because (1) it 
provides different treatments for the land, the fault of 
one year tending to be corrected by the management in 
another year; (2) no one element of plant-food is ex- 
hausted, the rotation tending to even up the demands; (3) 
one crop leaves the land in good physical condition for 
another; (4) it incorporates humus; (5) it destroys pests 
and weeds; (6) it economizes labor; (7) when green 
crops are turned under, available or digested plant-food is 
incorporated with the soil, and nitrogen may be supplied. 
The rotation of crops means, also, rotation in tillage, ma- 
nuring and other treatment; and one of these may be 
quite as important as the other. 

The reason for the resting " of land is hereby ex- 
plained. It is not due to any need of recuperation in the 
soil; but the good effects are the compound results of the 
various benefits derived from tilling and rotation. Gar- 
deners find that when soil becomes unproductive for a par- 
ticular crop, a change to another crop may result in profit. 
Soils that have l^cen long kept in market-gardens may be 
benefited by seeding down for two or three years. When- 
ever possible, attempts should Ije made to practice some 
kind of a rotation in the market-garden area. Xow and 
then, a part of the land may be laid down to clover for a 
year or two until it recovers; this provides a form of 
rotation and destroys insects and other organisms. 

2. THE DIRECT FERTILIZING OF THE LAND 

When the soil has been thoroughly fitted and improved 
by all the foregoing means, a gardener may think of add- 
ing plant-food. This plant-food may be supplied in a 



378 



The Land and Its Treatment 



concentrated fertilizer; it is also added when green-crops 
are plowed under, or when manure or compost of garden 
lefuse is applied. It will now be seen that the best re- 
sults are usually to be expected when there is something 
like a rotation in the fertilizing of the land, stable 
manures being used alternateh' with concentrated or com- 
mercial fertilizers. If such manures are not to be had 
for the entire plantation, they should be applied to the 
hardest spots or be reserved for the more exacting crops. 

The kind and quantity of fertilizers are to be deter- 
mined b}' several circumstances : ( 1 ) the earliness or 
quickness with which the crop is to be obtained; (2) the. 
intensity of the operations to which the man is com- 
mitted; (3) the nature of the land as regards tilth and 
texture; (4) the character of the land as regards rich- 
ness in plant-food; (5) the kind or species of crops. 

There is no infallible means by which one can deter- 
mine what fertilizers to apply. The grower must study 
his conditions and judge as best he can. A little ex- 
periment with different kinds of fertilizer on two or 
three of the leading crops at one side of the plantation, is 
the readiest means of answering the question. If one is 
in doubt, it is Avell to seek advice how to lay out and con- 
duct a demonstration plat; this advice will be given by 
the college of agriculture or farm-bureau agent. There 
are standard forms for such plats. 

The chemical analysis of the plant, while of the great- 
est use to the chemist in giving him suggestions, is of no 
practical use to the farmer in determining the kind of 
fertilizers or what amount shall be applied, notwithstand- 
ing a still more or less prevalent notion to the contrary. 



]y]ien to Fertilize 



379 



The chemical contents vary in the difierent seasons and in 
the different parts of the plant, and also with the soil in 
Tvhich the plant grows ; the plant ma}* take np more than 
it needs when some element is abundant. Even the wid- 
est variation in an}' one ingredient will he amply cov- 
ered by the large quantity of fertilizer ordinarily applied. 
Consider, for example, that the fruit of a tomato com- 
prises .05 per cent of phosphoric acid and .27 per cent of 
potash. If the crop is ten tons of fruit to the acre, more 
than the average quantity of required phosphoric acid is 
ten pounds and of potash fifty-four pounds. It is safe 
to assume that the land itself would supply at least three- 
fourths of these amounts. AVe will assume that one-fourth 
is to be supplied by the addition of fertilizer. We should 
then apply to the acre tAvo and one-half pounds of phos- 
phoric acid and about fourteen pounds of potash. As a 
matter of fact, however, the smallest quantities ever 
applied are many times in excess of these figures. Fer- 
tilizers must necessarily be applied in excess of theoretical 
needs. It is impossible to distribute a very small quan- 
tity ; roots do not occupy every pdrt of the ground. Much 
is risked in the chance that some of the material may be 
used. 

Another difficulty in tlie giving of advice is the vari- 
able nature of the soil. This is particularly the case in the 
Xorthern States, in which the soil is largely drift and is 
therefore very uneven in kind and depth. In the long 
stretches of sand on the Atlantic coastal plain or in the 
red clays of the South, and in nearly all alluvial soils, 
the problem of choosingf a fertilizer is less complex. The 
sandier and more uniform the land, the more marked, as 



380 The Land and Its Treatment 



a rule, the effects of commercial fertilizers. The harder 
the clay, the less marked, in general, is the result, although 
amendments (as lime) may have great effect in making 
such soils granular. 

Again, the state of tillage has much to do with the 
efficacy of a fertilizer. The element the plant needs may 
be afforded more cheaply by giving better tillage than by 
adding fertilizers; for tillage sets at work forces that un- 
lock plant-food. On the other hand, fertilizer is more 
usable by the plant on well-tilled soils : the plant can get 
hold of it because the material is more evenly distributed ; 
there is more moisture to dissolve it; the plant is more 
comfortable and vigorous and thereby better able to appro- 
priate it. The good gardener is the one who gets the most 
out of his land by means of tillage and then adds fer- 
tilizer to get more out of it. He uses fertilizer for the 
purpose of securing an extra yield, not to jirevent the soil 
from becoming exhausted. As a rule, the men Avho till 
best buy most plant-food. Fertilizer is usually a losing 
investment for a poor farmer. 

When to apply a fertilizer depends on (1) when it is 
needed by the plant; (2) the kind of fertilizer; (3) the 
soil; (4) the kind of plant; (5) the season of normal rain- 
fall of the district. 

The more soluble the fertilizer, the looser the soil, the 
shallower the roots, the later the material may be ap- 
plied. With trees, it matters little whether fertilizer is 
applied in fall or spring, for it is usually one or two years 
before it affects the plant. With the general run of vege- 
table crops and on soils in good tilth, it is usually best 
to apply fertilizer in spring, sowing it on the surface and 



Application of Fertilizer 



381 



harrowing it in. On ordinary soils, very little of it is lost 
by leaching. Nitrates are most likely to leach. They are 
soluble and pass down quickly. Therefore, nitrate of 
soda and sulfate of ammonia should not be applied much 
in advance of the planting. With annual crops, fertilizer 
should not be applied much, if any, in advance: the fer- 
tilizer is needed near the surface, and it should be quickly 
available. 

There is discussion whether fertilizer should be applied 
broadcast or in the hill, which proves that both methods 
give good results. If one wants to enrich the land, or to 
afford sustenance to the plant throughout its growing sea- 
son, apply broadcast. If one wants to use fertilizer to 
start the plant off and to maintain it until it gets a firm 
hold on the soil, apply in the hill. A most important 
use of commercial fertilizer in vegetable-gardening is to 
hasten the plant in the beginning. It has been likened to 
kindling-wood to start the blaze. 

It is not sufficient, however, that the plant be well 
started. Continuous growth of radishes, lettuce, spinach, 
turnips and many other crops means a tender and palat- 
able product, with the minimum of fiber and stringiness; 
the fertilizing should be liberal enough to maintain this 
growth. 

.While the gardener must regulate his fertilizer prac- 
tice by his own experiments and experience, he is not 
wholly dependent on his'own resources. Investigation and 
general agricultural experience indicate what probably 
will take place in a given case. The general advice, for 
example, is to apply a complete fertilizer — that is, one con- 
taining nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid in about the 



382 The Land and Its Treatment 



proportions that experience has found to be useful. This 
advice is particularly good when the person does not wish 
to experiment or to give the subject careful study. It is 
less useful, perhaps, when one does not wish to enrich the 
land as much as to give a stimulus to the young plant. 

It is generally considered that nitrogen promotes rapid 
vegetative growth. It therefore may be used most freely 
on plants desired for their foliage parts. If it promotes 
growth, it also delays maturity. Therefore it should be 
used s])aringly, or only early in the season, on fruit-bear- 
ing plants tliat tend to mature too late, as tomatoes and 
eggplants. Experiments at Cornell years ago showed that 
a little nitrate of soda is better than much for tomatoes; 
also, that a given quantity applied all at once early in the 
season is better than the same quantity applied at inter- 
vals, for in the latter case it promoted growth too late and 
the fruits did not ripen (page 257). 

For the person who has studied the subject and his soil, 
it is preferable to buy the elements in the form of high- 
grade chemicals and to apply each by itself. He can then 
apply little or much of any element to this place or to 
that, as he tliinks best. Good commercial sources of nitro- 
gen are nitrate of soda, sulfate of ammonia and dried 
blood; of potash, muriate of potash and unleached wood 
ashes; of phosphoric acid, bone meal and acid phosphate 
made from the rock phosphates of Tennessee, South Caro- 
lina and Florida. Of nitrate of soda, 150 to 300 pounds 
to the acre is a good application; of muriate of potash, 
200 to 400 pounds; of treated rock, 200 to 400 pounds. 

The grower should conceive of a basic formula, and 
then add or subtract to meet special needs. A^oorhees 



The Basic Formula 



383 



("Fertilizers," 2nd edition, 286) defines a basic formula 
as " one containing large quantities of all the best forms of 
plant-food to be used as a base for supplying market-gar- 
den crops with their general needs, with the idea that 
amendments may be made of nitrogen, or of other con- 
stituents, as the conditions seem to require " ; and he con- 
tinued : " apply a reasonable excess of all the essential fer- 
tilizer constituents to all of the crops." He recommends 
" a good basic fertilizer for market-garden crops " as 
follows : 

Nitrate of soda 250 lb. 

Ammonium sulfate 100 lb. 

Dried blood 150 lb. 

Acid phosphate, 16% A. P. A. . . . 1000 lb. 
Sulfate of potash 400 lb. 

A mixture of these materials of standard quality would 
show an average composition of 4 per cent nitrogen,' 8 
per cent phosphoric acid and 10 per cent potash. Such 
a mixture is an excellent basic formula for such crops as 
asparagus, cucumbers, onions, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, 
eggplant, melons, peppers, squashes and the like, but any 
mixture of the composition 4-8-10 which supplies the 
plant-food constituents in good forms may be used as a 
basic formula for all market-garden crops, leaving the 
specific needs of the different plants to be met by top- 
dressings, or applications of the other constitutents. The 
fertilizer ingredients, nitrogen and phosphoric acid, .should 
preferably consist of the different forms, rather than to be 
all of one form, though the cost of the element will natu- 
rally regulate this point to some extent. That is, a part 
of the nitrogen should be nitrate or ammonia, and a part 
organic; a part of the phosphoric acid should be soluble 



384 The Land and Its Treatment 



(from superphosphates) and a part insoluble (from 
ground bone, tankage or natural phosphates). The soluble 
portions of both nitrogen and phosphoric acid contribute 
to the immediate needs of the plant, and the less soluble 
to its continuous and steady growth, and to the potential 
fertility of the soil." 

All of this formula, or part of it, may be used on an acre. 
Commonly, 1,000 to 1,500 pounds are recommended. More 
specific advice may be found, as recommended by Yoor- 
hees or others, under the different vegetables. It is to 
be said, however, that the figures given for any vegetable 
are only by way of suggestion, for there is no invariable 
rule to follow. The grower learns by experience how to 
vary the indications for his land and for his method of 
handling the crop. 

3. THE IRRIGATIOX OF THE LAXD 

In many regions the crop is determined by the amount 
of rainfall rather than by the plant-food. The crop often 
requires more water than is supplied by the normal rain- 
fall of the growing season. Tillage can save much of the 
water that fell in the early rains and the winter snows, 
but there may still be insufficient moisture for a good crop. 
Irrigation may be necessary to supply the deficiency. 

In the arid j^arts, irrigation is a necessity. It is a 
general practice. In the humid parts of the country — 
east of the plains — irrigation is often helpful and it re- 
duces the risk of a poor crop. It is an exceptional or 
special practice. Evidently, in all regions in which crops 
yield abundantly without irrigation, the main reliance is 
to be placed on good tillage. 



Irrigation 



385 



Irrigation is an economic question. If, by irrigation, 
one can produce enough better crop more than to pay the 
cost, the practice is to be advised. Too often the farmer 
thinks of irrigation as he thinks of fertilizer — as a means 
of giving him crops when he does not work for them. It 
is only the well-tilled and well-handled lands that pay for 
either irrigating or fertilizing. The intenser the crop- 
ping, the more the capital invested, the better the market, 
the more likely is irrigation to pay. Ordinary crops will 
not pay the cost and risk of irrigation in the East. The 
feasibility of it depends, also, on the lay of the land, the 
availability of water, the price and supply of labor, the 
character of the given climate. 

Most vegetable-gardeners in the East do not find it 
profitable to irrigate. Now and then a man who has push 
and the ability to handle a fine crop finds it a profitable 
undertaking. If the grower contemplates putting in an 
irrigating plant, he should visit a garden in which one is 
in operation, if possible. He should take advice and buy 
a special book on the subject. 

In general garden operations, the water may be applied 
on the surface, in the furrows between the rows. The 
main conduits — which may be ordinary wrought-iron 
water pipes — are carried along the highest land. The 
pipes may be laid in ditches or on the surface. At inter- 
vals, hose-bibs are provided, so that a rubber hose can be 
attached and the water conveyed into the furrows. When 
box sluices are provided, there may be openings or water- 
gates opposite the furrows. If iron pipes are used, faucets 
must be provided at the lowest point of the run and in the 
sags for the purpose of emptying the pipe of water in 



386 The Land and Its Treatment 



the fall. The water supply must be ample^ for when irri- 
gation is most needed, the air is dry and hot and evapora- 
tion is rapid. It should be the aim to convey the water 
in narrow streams or furrows close to the plants, rather 
than to cover the entire space between the rows. The 
farther end of the rows should be supplied quickly (by 
providing sufficient fall, head and quantity), otherwise 
most of the water will be taken up at the near end of 
the row. 

Imitation of rainfall is now employed in many high- 
class gardens. This means an overhead installation, with 
the water forcibly thrown from small openings in lines 
of pipe. There should be a good head, for pressure is 
essential. The mains (consisting probably of l^-inch 
iron pipe) are laid either on the surface or beneath it. 
From these mains, smaller pipes are carried overhead ; they 
should be about 7 feet above ground to alloAV of easy work- 
ing beneath them and to give sufficient " throw " to the 
jets of water. Tlie pipes are punctured or l)ored at inter- 
vals of about 3 feet, special plug-nozzles being employed. 
The stream is small and solid as it leaves the nozzle, but 
soon breaks into a rain-like spray. With a head of 30 to 
40 pounds, the spray should reach 20 to 30 feet, and this, 
therefore, determines the distance apart of the runs. 
Gates are provided in the pipes, which, when turned, throw 
the Avater in one course or another. 

The overhead irrigation has given good commercial 
results in certain types of intensive gardening, greatly re- 
ducing the risks. The system should be installed by an 
experienced man, for the weak points in the operation 
have now been well worked out. 



8 ul) -irrigation 



387 



The ather extreme from overhead watering is sub-irri- 
gation. This method has long been employed in green- 
houses. The water is there conducted underneath the 
soil in drain-tiles, and it distributes itself from the unce- 
mented joints. The bed or bench is provided with a hard- 
pan in the form of cement, so that the water does not leach 
away. Earely do comparable conditions occur in nature; 
yet sometimes in reclaimed bogs and swamps a hardpan 
lies a foot or two beneath the surface and tiles may be 
laid on it and receive water from the higher end. These 
tiles may also serve the ordinary purposes of drainage. 
Sometimes the outlets of ditches and drains in mucklands 
are closed in dry weather and the water is held or even 
backed up, affording a kind of irrigation. 



CHAPTEE XVI 



VEGETABLE-GARDENING T00L8 AND 
IMPLEMENTS 

The tool multiplies the power of the man. Eelative to 
the price of land, labor is expensive in America. It must 
be economized. Tools and implements are a necessity. 

To an important degree it is true that the successful 
American farmer is known by the number and variety of 
his tools. The man who has many useful implements em- 
phasizes brain above brawn. He is tactful and resource- 
ful. He means to be master of the situation. He is to 
accomplish the given result with the least expenditure of 
mere muscular energy. He will do his work better and 
more expeditiously than the man who depends on his 
hands and his strength. Good tools educate the man. 
Their use cultivates ingenuity. They teach him to think. 

On the other hand, the man who is rich in large agri- 
cultural implements has less intimate contact with his 
plants than has the hand-worker. The machine is be- 
tween him and the plant. He depreciates the value of 
painstaking human care in the growing and the training 
of the plant. If he becomes machine-minded rather than 
plant-minded, he ceases to be a gardener. 

In American conditions, a large equipment of tools is 
necessary to an abundant and cheap crop. The nicest 
judgment is required to make a proper choice; for the 

(38S) 



The Uses of Tools 



389 



kinds should be determined by (1) the character of the 
soil; (3) the size of the plantation; (3) the comparative 
earliness of the required product; (4) the kinds of plants 
to be grown; (5) the personal ideas of the farmer. 

Tools adapted to the working of clay soils may not be 
adapted to sand. There should be a tool for each diverse 
type of labor. An advantage of the variety in tools offered 
by American dealers is the fact that a tool may be found 
for each particular purpose. Some farms, however, are 
overstocked with tools. Too much capital is locked up in 
them. This fault is usually the result of duplication, — the 
various tools are too similar, they do not perform different 
kinds or types of labor. 

It requires nearly as many tools to equip one acre of 
market-garden as to equip five acres. Consequently, it is 
relatively cheaper to till a fairly large area, so long as it 
can be tilled well. The greater the capital invested in 
an acre of land, the more intensive should be the cropping 
and cultivation. 

In choosing a tool, the buyer should know (a) what 
labor is to be performed; (&) what implement will best 
perform it. Many persons buy a tool because it is per- 
fect as a mechanism or merely because it is an improve- 
ment on what they already have. This is well; but it 
should be borne in mind, after all, that the tool is not the 
first consideration, — it is not the unit. The unit is the 
work to be performed or the condition to be attained. A 
farmer may not ask, therefore, whether he shall buy a 
spading-harrow : he should consider his soil and what he 
wants to do with it, and then search for the tool that will 
best meet the work. 



390 Vegetable-Gardening Tools and Implements 



In general, it is well to avoid combination tools which, 
by means of various attachments, are designed to perform 
very unlike kinds of labor. They are likely to be less 
efficient than tools made directly for the given labor, and 
are also more liable to get out of repair. They are usually 
cheaper than separate tools, however, and some of them 
are very satisfactory. 

Market-gardening tools, implements, carriages and ma- 
chines may be roughly classified as follows : 

I. For tillage. 

a. Tools to prepare the land for planting : 
Plows, 
Harrows, 
Cultivators, 
Eollers, 

Hand-tools of various kinds, as spades, 
wheel-hoes. 

h. Tools for subsequent use, — to maintain the con- 
dition of the land: 
Cultivators, 
Weeders, 

Hand-tools, as wheel-hoes, hoes, rakes, scari- 
fiers, finger-weeders. 

II. To facilitate liand-worli. 

In distributing manure and fertilizer. 

In marking the land. 

In sowing. 

In planting, 

In spraying. 

In harvesting. 



Classification of Toots 



391 



In threshing. 

In grading and packing, 

In preparing the product for market or sale. 

III. For transvortation. 

Carts and barrows, 
Stone-boats and sledges, 
Wagons, 
Motor trucks. 

IV. For power. 

Water motors. 
Wind mills. 
Steam engines. 

Gas engines, tractors, trucks, and other 

motors. 
Electric motors. 

For a market-garden large enough to be worked by 
horses or mechanical power, the following general-purpose 
tools and implements, at the least, will be needed: 

1 2-horse plow, 

1 1-horse plow, 

1 furrowing or single shovel plow, 

1 spading- or cutaway-harrow, if the land is heavy, 

1 spring-tooth harrow, 

1 roller or slicker, 

1 smoothing harrow, 

1 spike-tooth cultivator, 

1 wide-tooth or shovel-blade cultivator, 

1 or more hand cultivators, 

1 marker, 

1 seed-sower or drill. 



392 Vegetable-Gardening Tools and Implements 



1 or more hand wheel-hoes, 
1 or more wagons, 
1 stone-boat, 
1 wheelbarrow, 

1 spraying outfit, ' 
Spades, shovels, hoes, rakes, forks, hand-weeders, trowels 

and dibbers, hose, watering-cans, carpenters' tools. 

Implements of secondary importance, but which the well- 
equipped market-garden must possess, are: 
Gang-plow, if the area is large. 
Sub-soil plow. 
Swivel plow, 

2 or more types of spading, cutaway, or disk harrows, 

if the land is heavy. 
Acme and other harrows. 
Wire-tooth weeder, 

Various patterns of cultivators for special work. 
Plant-setter, 
Fertilizer distributor. 
Trucks and wagons. 

Aside from these various devices, there are special im- 
plements for special crops, as celery-hillers, asparagus- 
bunchers, potato-diggers, potato-sorters, graders, and the 
like. 

Tlie implements and their work. 

The plow is the primary or fundamental general-purpose 
farm implement. Its office is to prepare the land, not to 
maintain it in condition. As a class, stiff and heavy soils 
require heavy plows and deep plowing, Sandy soils may 



What the Implements Do 



393 



be the better for shallow plowing, for it is often desirable 
to compact the sub-soil rather than to loosen it. There 
are conditions and conditions. 

Plowing has three general offices: (a) to break and pul- 
verize the soil to fit it for the growth of the crop ; (h) to 
turn under and cover the surface herbage, or the manure; 
(c) to begin the preparation of a seed-bed in which the 
plant may get a start. In the plowing of the sandy soils, 
the second office may be sought; only a good seed-bed is 
desired, for the land is loose enough without the plowing. 
In the clay field, all offices are sought. Not deep plow- 
ing nor shallow plowing is a principle: it is only a means 
of accomplishing a desired result. 

The seed-bed of the general field is finished by the har- 
row. The soil is maintained in tilth by the harrow. The 
harrow, therefore, is an implement both for preparing and 
maintaining the soil condition. 

If the land is light, loose or sandy, tillage presents few 
difficulties and relatively little expense. If it is hard clay, 
tillage must be nicely managed for best results. Many 
persons expend more time and muscle on clay lands than, 
are required. The one important item is timeliness. When 
the soil is betwixt wet and dry, it breaks as it turns from 
the plow. Turn it up loose and open. Then let it lie for 
a few hours or a day. As the clods begin to dry, work 
roughly with a strong harrow, as a spading-harrow, spring- 
tooth, or acme. Do not try to work it down fine. As the 
lumps begin to dry after the next rain, hit them with the 
boot. If they break and crumble, work the land again, 
this time with a lighter harrow. A few timely workings 
when the soil is Just right will accomplish more than thrice 



394 Vegetahle-Gardening Tools and Implements 



the labor at other times. Persons often make the mis- 
take of tilling their clay lands until they become too fine. 
Then a rain packs and cements them, and the trouble be- 
gins all over again. The addition of humns enables one to 
make a clay soil mealy. 

Gradually, as the texture improves, lighter tools may 
be used to maintain the surface mulch, — for the tillage of 
maintenance really has no other primary office than to 
keep the surface loose. When finally the wire-tooth weeder 
can be used, the gardener may know that his surface soil is 
in perfect condition. To most general farmers the weeder 
is a useless tool, but market-gardeners prize it, — which 
illustrates the differences in tillage between the common 
farm and the market-garden. 

A one-horse harrow is usually kno^Ti as a cultivator. But 
there are two types of cultivators, — those that only stir the 
soil and repair the surface mulch, as the spike-tooth cul- 
tivators; and those that move the soil or even invert it, 
as the shovel-tooth cultivators. Perhaps shovel-tooth culti- 
vators are too common and 
spike-toothed cultivators too 
rare. 

Pollers have two uses: (a) to 
break clods and level the 
ground; (b) to provide mois- 

222. Leveling device ^ched turC for SCcds Or UCwly Sct 
to a cultivator frame. , , -r» n- i i t i 

plants. Polling establishes cap- 
illary connection with the under soil, and brings the 
particles into contact with the seeds. It destroys the sur- 
face mulch. The water rises and passes off into the air: 
in its passage, it moistens the seeds. As soon as the seed- 




Rollers and Hoes 395 

lings or transplanted plants are established, therefore, 
restore the surface nrnlch. The farmer patted his hill of 
corn with the hoe, in the former days, thereby accomplish- 
ing the result which he secures on the wheat field with his 
roller. The gardener walks over his 
row of seeds. 

If the roller is employed only to 
break the clods, the land should be 
tilled again to restore the surface 
mulch. The roller is a poor tool in the 
hands of a thoughtless man. For the 
leveling of land, a home-made planker 
or slicker is a useful tool. A similar 
device may be attached to a cultivator 
frame (Fig. 222). 

In the garden, the wheel-hoe is im- 
portant (Fig. 223). It saves im- 
mensely of hand labor and usually 
leaves the soil in better condition than 
does hand-work. There are a number 
of patterns, large and small. Choose 223. 

Three kinds of wheel -hoe. 

a large wheel with a broad tire, that it 
may ride over lurnps and travel on soft ground. Soil must 
be in good condition to be worked with wheel-hoes; there- 
fore, they should be introduced for their educational effect. 
Aim at the onion-bed condition of tilth. 

A hand-hoe is a clumsy and inefficient tool. Its one 
merit in this regard is the fact that it can be used between 
the plants, where many other tools cannot enter; but it 
leaves no efficient surface mulch and does not often im- 
prove soil-texture. The common hoe has two types of legit- 





396 V egetable-Gardening Tools and Implements 



imate uses on the farm, — to aid in planting, to kill weeds. 
As a tillage-tool, the rake is far superior. Most persons 
use the hoe as they would a pick, — to chop the earth. Much 
hoeing usually wastes soil moisture. 

The gardener should secure a spraying outfit of large 
capacity. It is more efficient and more economical of labor. 
Be sure that the pump is strong, carefully made, well lined, 
and has much power. Clean it thoroughly inside before 
putting it away for winter. Get it out a month before it 
is wanted in spring ; it will probably need tinkering. Year 
by year, spraying machinery is improving. The gardener 
is practically powerless before the multitude of bugs and 
fungi unless he has good spraying and dusting devices and 
a proper stock of insecticides and fungicides. 

For the home garden one needs many small hand tools 
and helps, some of which can be made on the premises. 
These aids include hand-weeders, light hoes, sprinklers, 
watering-cans, garden line and reel, labels, stakes, and 
others. A tool shed or stall is one of the most interesting 
adjuncts to a garden, expressing the gardener's interest 
in deft and neat handicraft. 



CHAPTEJl XVII 



SEEDS AND SEED AGE 

■ Most vegetable-gardening crops are grown directly from 
seeds. Therefore, the character of the seed is of vital im- 
portance to the vegetable-grower, whether he is an ama- 
teur or a commercial man. The grower is interested in 
seeds from these points of view: (1) whether they are 
viable; (2) whether the sample is unadulterated, carrying 
no seeds of weeds and no foreign matter; (3) whether the 
seeds are true to name; (4) whether they represent an 
improvement on the variety or strain, or at least maintain 
the merits of it. The quality of the seeds may determine 
both the quality and the yield of the crops. Land, fertil- 
izing, seeds, — these are the essential considerations at the 
beginning in the growing of vegetables. 

1. THE TESTING OF SEEDS 
Seed tests are of three leading kinds: (1) to determine 
the purity or content of the sample as respects admixture 
of foreign matter; (2) to determine viability; (3) to de- 
termine whether the variety is true to name or kind. 

Testing for purity or content, and for viability or ger- 
minating power, are relatively simple. 

But the determination of the nature of the sample as 
concerns its trueness to name and its peculiarities attained 

(307) 



398 



Seeds and Seedage 



through heredity and environment is more difficult, as 'it 
must be made from the product of the plants, often requir- 
ing special and expert training on the part of the investi- 
gator. Such determinations have apparently not received 
the attention they deserve, largely from the prevalent opin- 
ion that these matters lie beyond the control or check af- 
forded by the tests of impartial investigators, an opinion 
no doubt strengthened by the so-called contract often 
printed on seed-packets to the effect that the seller assumes 
no responsibility for the contents of the packet. The seed 
dealer certainly cannot be held responsible for failures that 
may be fairly associated with conditions of weather, soil, 
or method of growing ; but the disclaimer cannot shield him 
if he is negligent or remiss, or if he fails to exercise rea- 
sonable caution in the care and selection of his stock. Un- 
doubtedly the quality of seeds is improving, as seed- 
control laws become more exact, as the good practice of 
plant-breeding becomes better understood, and with the 
increasing care on the part of seedsmen. 

Testing for impurities. 

Testing samples to determine the foreign matter (as 
sand, stones, sticks, chaff, empty seeds), or the presence of 
seeds of other species is performed by carefully examining 
small lots under a lens. The operator should have at hand 
for comparison reliable samples of the seeds of weeds and 
other plants likely to occur in any sample. 

In the vegetable-garden seeds there need be little fear 
that many weeds will be introduced. Such seeds are sold 
in small quantities and they are most carefully cleaned. 
Even if weeds were to be introduced, the thinning and till- 
age of a vegetable-garden would eradicate them. The 



Testing for Foreign Bodies 



399 



greatest risk in the buying of seeds is the chance that 
they may not be true to name or that, if true to name, the 
particular strain may not be the best. There are differ- 
ences within varieties which may make all the difference 
between profit and loss. If the grower wants to be very 
sure of his product, it is not enough that he buys seeds of 
Early Snowball cauliflower : he should know what kind of 
Snowball he is buying. There is no way of testing the 
seed except to raise the crop. One must rely on his seeds- 
man. This he can do with safety if he chooses a reliable 
seedsman and if he is willing to pay a good price for his 
seeds. The cheapest seeds may be the dearest. 

Testing for viability. 

The testing of seeds for viability, or for the ability to 
grow, is preferably made in the soil under uniform condi- 
tions, for then they can be carried completely through the 
process of germination rather than merely through the 
sprouting stage. The best place for the test is in a green- 
house, but the living-room of a dwelling house may answer 
very well. Use a flat (I'ig- ^30) or other shallow box 
or earthenware pan. As a rule, the best results are to be 
obtained by planting in the soil in conditions as nearly as 
possible approaching the normal requirements of the par- 
ticular species or variety. A light loose loam with a 
good mixture of sand is the best soil for this purpose. A 
good method is to place two or three inches of loam in a 
flat, wetting thoroughly without puddling it; then cover 
the soil with an inch or less of sterilized (baked) sand, in 
which to sow the seeds. The loam keeps the sand supplied 
with moisture. 

The inexperienced operator usually applies too muc^h 



400 



Seeds and Seedage 



water. Gardeners are well aware that very conflicting re- 
sults may be secured from the same lot of seed by different 
degrees of watering. The same remark applies to varia- 
tions in temperature. Celery, for example, gives very poor 
tests in widely fluctuating temperatures ; it is also injured 
by being kept at a uniformly high temperature, whereas 
melons and beans give the best tests in a high temperature. 

The seeds should be sown carefully at uniform depths 
and at equal distances apart. To gauge the depth, nail a 
cleat of the required thickness on a thin block and press 
this cleat or tongue into the soil to its full extent: the 
furrow is then of uniform depth. The seedlings should be 
allowed to remain until large enough to show whether they 
are likely to make strong or weak plants. Not every seed 
that germinates is worth the planting. 

If one desires to know what percentage of any sample 
of seeds still retains life, he should resort to a sprouting 
test. This test is made in an apparatus in which all agen- 
cies are under perfect control, and the seeds are counted 
and discarded as soon as they have sprouted. There are 
various patterns of germinating apparatus. An incubator 
may be made to answer the requirements. Samples of seeds 
which give the highest sprouting tests are not necessarily 
the most reliable, for it is probable that the percentage 
of vegetation, or subsequent growth, does not alwa^'s bear 
a direct ratio to percentage of latent vitality. 

Sprouting tests may be made in dinner-plates, on blot- 
ting-paper. The paper is kept moist, the seeds are placed 
on it, and another plate is inverted over it to hold the 
moisture intact. 



Seed-testing 



401 



Perhaps a better device is the sawdust box. Two or 
three inches of clean sawdust that has been soaked with 
warm water is placed in a box. In the smoothed packed 
sawdust is spread a stout wet cloth, on which the seeds 
may be placed or scattered. Cover with another warm wet 
cloth, over which place a thick cloth sawdust pad, well 
pressed down. Keep the box at a living-room temperature. 
When the time has come for examination (six to nine days 
for corn, less for radishes and some other things, more for 
carrots, parsnips, and celery), the pad and upper cloth are 
removed and the seeds exposed. Determine the percentage 
of seed that has germinated, and what proportion is most 
vigorous and apparently strong enough to make good 
plants. If just one hundred seeds were placed on the cloth, 
the calculation will be easier. Sometimes the under cloth 
is ruled off into squares, by pencil, and the seeds from each 
ear or fruit placed together. Any ear showing a poor 
or weak kernel should be discarded for seed. 

The " rag-doll " tester is now popular. It is merely a 
canton flannel roll of seeds. A strip of the cloth about 
6 inches wide and 30 inches long is laid on the table and 
the seeds are spread on it. It is then rolled up and tied 
loosely, and placed in a pail of lukewarm water for about 
12 hours. The water is then poured off, and the doll is 
kept in the covered moist pail until the seeds sprout. 

Percentages and longevity. 

Seeds should hardly be expected to give 100 per cent 
of sprouting. Some species are habitually lower than 
others. Perhaps 85 to 90 per cent may be considered a 



402 



Seeds and Seedage 



good expectation, although it runs in honest samples from 
75 (or even less) to 95 per cent. In the case of beet and 
sea-kale, fruits, not seeds, are sown, and each fruit contains 
one or more seeds: therefore the figures are often above 
100 per cent. In some years all seeds are much better 
than in others. In many cases the percentages of germi- 
nation are increased by cleaning the sample, thereby elimi- 
nating the weak and light seeds. Varieties of the same 
species may differ in germinating qualities. 

The longevity of seeds is determined (a) by the species; 
{1)) by the season in which they are grom; (c) by the way 
in which they are grown and harvested; (d) by the con-- 
ditions in which they are kept or stored. The umbellifer- 
ous seeds (parsnip, celery, carrot) are usually good for 
only one or two or three years, whereas the cucurbits 
(pumpkin and squash, melon, cucumber, watermelon), 
may hold five to ten years. The gardener soon learns by 
experience what seeds he may safely hold over. In the 
botanical accounts of the various species, in this book, the 
usual expectations of longevity are stated. 

2. THE GROWING OF SEEDS 
The growing of seeds has come to be a business by itself, 
requiring expert knowledge of soils and climate, and of 
methods of handling every kind of crop. The demand for 
seeds is large. Competition is great. The quality con- 
stantly improves. Plant-breeding has come to be an im- 
portant factor. Under the present-day conditions, it is 
only the exception that a man can afford to grow his own 
seeds. With the development of intensive market-garden- 



Seed-l reeding 403 

» 

mg interest, seed-buyers are becoming more cautious and 
discriminating. Seeds are now wanted for their inherent 
quality rather than merely to represent a varietal name. 

Tlie breeding of seeds. 

This means that plants, as well as animals, must be 
^' bred " ; that is, they should have a known history, coming 
from parents of accepted quality and attributes. The 
breeding of seeds has come to be an extensive business. 
The discriminating farmer makes sure that his oats repre- 
sent a carefully chosen parentage and that the " seed " has 
been produced under accepted safeguards. He is willing 
to pay the extra cost of producing such seeds. Crops of 
the grains, cotton and vegetables, as well as florists' flow- 
ers, have been much improved in quality and yield by the 
work of plant-breeders, and greater gains are yet to come. 
The gardener may not desire to enter the larger fields of 
plant-breeding, ])ut he should at least be aware of the im- 
portance of the subject and he should be able to practice 
intelligent selection. 

The usual means at the disposal of the grower is to 
" select " his seed plants. He must understand that the 
quality is usually an attribute of the plant as a whole and 
not of a single fruit or branch: he therefore looks for 
plants that bear the produce he wants and does not take 
seeds from miscellaneous good fruits or pods he finds in 
the market. 

Finding a plant in his field that has strong and useful 
variation, he marks it and saves seed from it. The plant 
may be a tomato; perhaps he finds two or more plants. 



404 



Seeds and Seedage 



He saves seed from each fruit separately, recording the 
parentage; he raises the plants in separate rows, a row 
from a single fruit, or at least from a given plant; some 
rows show the characters persisting or even improving 
and other rows do not; again he selects seeds from the 
best plant, and repeats the operation until the desired at- 
tribute or product is reproduced with fair constancy from 
seed: then he uses his selected seed for the raising of his 
crop. 

He must not suppose that the developed strain or va- 
riety is permanent. He must constantly select from the 
plants nearest his ideal or pattern, to keep the stock up 
to grade. He will do well to have a breeding-plot in which 
the seed-stock may be grown, if he is raising a specialty of 
a particular kind. 

It is seen, therefore, that it is a particular business to 
grow good seeds. The seed-grower must have an idea or 
type and work to it. His plantations must be "rogued." 
That is, all plants that do not meet the breeder's type 
are pulled up and discarded, and the true or typical stock 
is left to produce the seed. The truer and higher the 
man's idea, the better his stock should be. It requires 
experience to enable one to make for himself a true and 
practical ideal of any variety of plant. He must know 
what the market wants. He must know what his cus- 
tomers want. He must know what will be good and 
useful under the greatest number of conditions. He 
must know what will be likely to be most stable and in- 
variable. The type once apprehended, the seed-breeder 
must thereafter discard every plant that does not closely 



The Growing of Seeds 



405 



approach it; his stock must be uniform. As soon as the 
" roguing or selection is neglected, or when new notions 
are introduced, the varietal characteristics tend to disap- 
pear or to change. 

Seed-growing. 

Experience has demonstrated that certain soils and cli- 
mates produce the best seeds of certain species. No longer 
are all kinds of seeds grown indiscriminately in one place 
or merely where they will mature. The price of labor 
is an important factor. Seeds that require much care 
and trouble in the growing are raised, if possible, where 
labor is most abundant and cheap. It is no accident that 
radish seeds are grown in France, and lima beans in Cali- 
fornia. 

Only when a man is making a specialty of some vege- 
table, and lives in the place in which the seeds can be 
produced most advantageously, or is under the necessity 
of developing a kind or strain of his own, can he afford 
to grow his seeds; and even then it is a question whether 
it would not be better and cheaper to delegate the busi- 
ness. The man who desires to secure the very b^st results 
in the growing of some specialty should know where his 
seeds are grown, particularly if his business success de- 
pends on the crop in question. 

When one is engaged in a high-class vegetable-growing 
business one should not buy seed indiscriminately in the 
general market. There are particular strains of leading 
varieties of vegetables which are better for certain mar- 
kets and conditions. These strains are likely to be most 



406 



Seeds and Seedage 



useful in the geographical area in which they are bred. 
Seeds of these strains are often sold as "market-garden- 
ers' private stock/' Under general conditions and in other 
geographical regions, these private stocks may be of no 
advantage, but in special places and for particular purposes 
they may make all the difference between success and fail- 
ure ; and yet the differences in the resulting crop might be 
of such a character that they could not be definitely de- 
scribed in a seed catalogue or in an experiment station 
bulletin. 

The yield of seeds (in lbs.) that may be expected from 
an acre, under good conditions, is approximately as fol- 



lows: 










When crop is 




Yield seedsmen 




as near maxi- 


A maximum 


would figure on 




mum as 20 bus. 


crop corre- 


in making con- 




of wheat would 


sponding to 


tracts for 




be, or average 


50 bushels 


large 




of "good crop" 


wheat 


quantities 


Bean .... 


GOO 


1,500 


500 


Cabbage . 


250 


800 


200 




(two years) 






Cucumber . 


150 


700 


100 


Muskmelon 


125 


COO 


100 


Pea .... 


900 


2,500 


800 


Squash, "Winter . 


100 


400 


100 


Squash, Summer 


100 


700 


100 


Sweet corn . 


. 1,000 to 2,500 


2,500 to 4,000 


800 to 2.000 




(according to var.) 






Tomato . . . 


100 


400 


100 


Watermelon . 


150 


1,000 


100 



How the seeds are grown is told briefly in the chapters 
that deal with these different vegetables; but this book 
does not purport to discuss seed-growing, and the person 



Buy Seeds in Advance 



407 



who desires detailed information should go to special lit- 
erature. 

3. THE SOWING OF SEEDS 

The gardener should buy his seeds in bulk and in ad- 
vance, if possible, if he is growing large areas and for a 
critical market. He can then demand the best. He will 
also secure a cheaper rate. It may even be well to engage 
them of the seed dealer a season in advance, to be sure that 
he has the kind and quantity he desires. Since seeds are 
poor in some seasons, it is well for him to keep at least 
a partial stock on hand from year to year, particularly 
of those kinds that retain their vitality for several years. 
He is then relatively independent. The gardener who 
grows largely for a special market of such important crops 
as beet, carrot, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumber, melon, let- 
tuce, radish and tomato, will do well to purchase double 
the quantity of seed he requires for the one season, in order 
that he may preserve stock of the strains that prove to be 
particularly desirable. The capital thus locked up in seeds 
is small, as compared with the risk of being unable to 
secure a desirable strain. 

Congenial temperature and a continuous supply of mois- 
ture are the two requisites of germination to be provided 
by the gardener. He provides these agents by placing the 
seeds in a loose, moist, granular medium, as mealy and 
friable soil. If this soil lies on other soil, the moisture is 
drawn up by capillary attraction and as it passes off it 
moistens the seeds and promotes germination. If the soil 
is very loose, open or lumpy, the capillary attraction is 



408 



Seeds and Seedage 



broken and the Inoisture does not rise to the seeds. Or, 
if it does rise, the seeds are not in intimate contact with 
the particles of earth and do not receive much of the soil 
moisture; moreover, the air held in the large interstices 
tends to dry out the seed. To a large extent, a continuous 
and uniform supply of moisture is a regulator of tempera- 
ture. It is therefore apparent why a finely divided and 
compact soil is the proper medium in which to sow seeds. 

Whenever the soil is likely to become drier rather than 
moister, as at the usual germinating season, it is important 
to firm the earth over the seeds. In large field operations, 
as in the sowing of the cereal grains, the roller is ordi-" 
narily used. Under market-gardening conditions, the soil 
is usually compacted by a roller which is a part of the 
seed-drill and which follows just behind the delivery spout. 
When seeds are sown from the hand, the soil is compacted 
with a hoe or by walking over the row. Since this com- 
pacting of the surface establishes capillary connection with 
the under soil, thereby drawing up the water and passing 
it into the atmosphere, it is important that this condition 
be allowed to remain only until the seeds have germinated 
and are able to shift for themselves. Therefore, as soon as 
possible restore the surface mulch by rake or smoothing- 
harrow (pages 394-5). 

Particulars in seed-soiuing. 

Seeds that are planted very deep, as peas, may have the 
earth compacted about them, and the surface layer may 
be loosened immediately thereafter, thereby preventing, to 
some extent, the escape of the soil moisture. The space 
between the rows should be kept well tilled, even before 



Seed-sowing 



409 



the seeds germinate, thereby saving the moisture in that 
area. 

Seeds tliat germinate very slowly, as parsnips and celery, 
should be sown thick in order that the combined forces of 
the germinating plantlets may break the crust on the soil. 
This caution is always necessary on soils that tend to bake, 
whatever the kind of seed. It may be well to sow a few 
strong and quick-germinating seeds with those of slow- 
germinating species to break the soil, and also to mark the 
row so that tillage may be begun before the main-crop 
seeds are up and before the weeds have taken possession of 
the land. Seeds of radish, cabbage or turnip may be sown 
in the row with celery, parsnips, carrots and the like. In 
some cases, a crop of radish may be obtained in this way 
before the main crop occupies the land, but this is only an 
accidental gain and there is danger that the major crop 
may be injured. 

The cost of seed is ordinarily a small matter in com- 
parison with the expense of the season^s labor and the 
value of the crop. Therefore, seeds should be sown freely 
to avoid the risk of failure. Even if five or ten times more 
seeds are sown than plants are required, the extra expen- 
diture may be justified. x\nother great value of thick seed- 
ing is that it allows of more extensive thinning of the 
plants ; and thinning is a process of selection, and the best 
are allowed to remain. It is evident that the chances of 
securing the best are greater when the gardener leaves one 
plant out of ten rather than one plant out of three. The 
selection in the seed-bed or the seed-row is imdoubtedly one 
of the means by which cultivated plants have been so 
greatly ameliorated or improved. 



410 



Seeds and Seedage 



Most of the recommendations of writers on the quantity 
of seed for a given length of row are in excess of the num- 
ber of plants actually required. It may be that some of 
these recommendations are higher than even the risks will 
warrant; but it is much safer to sow even the most exces- 
sive amounts than to sow just as many seeds as are theo- 
retically needed on a basis of the number of mature plants 
to the row or the acre. 

Seeds ordinarily germinate best in freshly turned or 
freshly worked soil. This is because there is more mois- 
ture in the fresh soil than in that which lias been exposed 
to the weather. We shall find in the succeeding chapter 
that gardeners expect to secure better success in trans- 
planting when they can set plants on freshly plowed land. 

The depth at which seeds should be sown depends (1) 
on the soil, as to whether it is moist or dry, well tilled or 
poorly tilled; (2) on the species and size of the seed; (3) 
on the season. The finer and moister the soil, the shal- 
lower the sowing may be. The larger the seeds, the deeper 
they may be sown. Seeds may be sown shallower in spring 
than in summer, for at the latter season the surface soil 
is dry. An old gardener^s rule is to cover the seeds to a 
depth equal to twice their diameter. This applies well to 
greenhouse conditions, in which the soil is finely prepared 
and kept continuously moist but in the open ground, the 
seeds are usually planted deeper than this. 

Horticultural plants are ordinarily divided into three 
classes in respect to hardiness : ( 1 ) hardy, or those able to 
withstand the vicissitudes of climate in a given place; (2) 
half-hardy, or able to withstand light frosts or other un- 
congenial conditions ; ( 3 ) tender, or wholly unable to with- 
stand frost. Seeds of the hardy plants may be sown in 



Seed-sowing 



411 



spring as early as the land can be made fit, or even in 
autumn. Examples of such seeds are sweet pea, onion, 
leek. In the Northern States, however, few seeds are sown 
in the autumn; but the land is often prepared in autumn, 
and the seeds are sown as soon as the earth is dry enough 
in spring. The seeds of half-hardy plants, as beets and let- 
tuce, may be sown two or three weeks before settled weather 
is expected to come — that is, when it is still expected that 
there will be hard frosts. Tender seeds, as beans, toma- 
toes, eggplants, cucumbers, melons, are sown only after 
last frost has passed and when the ground is thoroughly 
settled and warm. 

The seed-hed. 

Of plants normally transplanted, it is better to start the 
seeds in a seed-bed. These beds may be in the forcing- 
liouse, hotbed or coldf rame ; or, if it is not desired to force 
the plants beyond the normal season, it may be made in 
the open. There are three chief advantages in sowing in 
a seed-bed, rather than where the plants are to grow: (1) 
it insures better germination, since the conditions are more 
uniform and congenial; (2) it saves time and labor; (3) 
it enables the gardener to guard against insects, fungi and 
accidents, since plants in a compact body can be sprayed, 
fumigated, covered or otherwise treated to advantage. In 
forcing-houses and frames, it is now a common practice to 
start seeds in flats or boxes. 

The seed-bed should be a small area on land that is in 
the best of tilth. It should be near the buildings and the 
water supply. If the season is hot and dry, it may be 
well to shade the bed until the seedlings appear. The 
best shading ordinarily is a lath screen laid on a frame 



41^ 



Seeds and Seedage 



standing two to three feet above the ground. Such a screen 
gives a partial shade and also allows of a free circulation 
of air ; and the screens may be removed and the bed weeded 
at any time. A covering of brush is sometimes used, but 
it is less handy than the lath screen ; if it is laid directly 
on ground, the bed cannot be weeded and it is likely to 
become foul. Sometimes boards, matting or other dense 
covers are laid directly on the bed. This may do very 
well for a few days, until' the seeds begin to break the 
ground, but thereafter the covering should be removed, else 
the young seedlings will be injured. The seedlings should 
be given sufficient head-room and light and air to enable 
them to develop to their normal condition. If the seed-bed 
is kept too wet and the seedlings are too soft, the damping- 
off fungi are likely to work havoc. Sometimes the seed- 
bed is made underneath a tree, but this is rarely advisable, 
since the earth usually requires too much watering and 
the shade may be too dense. 

If it is desired to secure a quick germination of seeds 
in a summer seed-bed, it is well to prepare the bed the 
fall before, or at least very early in the spring, and to keep 
it covered with several inches or a foot of well-rotted man- 
ure until needed. When the bed is needed, the manure is 
removed; the soil is then full of moisture and the seeds 
germinate quickly. The' fertility leached from the manure 
also enables the plantlets to secure an early foothold. This 
method is practiced in some of the market-gardening cen- 
ters, particularly those in which late cabbages and cauli- 
flower are grown. 

When sowing in the open field, the use of a seed-drill 
should be encouraged, not only because it saves time and 
labor, but also because, it enforces good preparation of the 



The Sterile Seed-led 



413 



land. A drill cannot be worked in hard, dense and lumpy 
soil. Seed-drills, wheel-hoes and smoothing-harrows make 
better gardeners. If a seed-drill is not used, the seed-fur- 
rows for ordinary use may be made by drawing the end 
of a hoe handle or rake forcibly through the soil. A gar- 
den line should be used to keep the rows straight. 

When sowing in the open, wait until ground and season 
are ready. Earely is anything gained by sowing before 
this time. The seeds rot, or the seedlings are weak. The 
soil must be fitted after the plants are up. Have every- 
thing ready, then make the plants grow. 

Sterilizing tlie soil. 

If the soil is infected with damping-off and other fungi, 
with nematodes (eel-worms) and insects, it may be steri- 
lized. This is a common practice in greenhouses, and it 
should be oftener undertaken in hotbeds and outdoor seed- 
beds. If the soil is exposed to hard freezing, as in the open 
in the Central and Northern States, the nematodes are dis- 
patched. Far South, however, they are very troublesome, 
as also in greenhouses and forcing-houses. One must not 
run the risk of infecting the garden, even for a single 
season, with soil or plants from the greenhouse. 

The usual process of sterilization of soil is heating it 
with steam until a potato buried in it is thoroughly 
cooked. The outdoor bed is heated by inverting over it a 
tight metal or board box, four to five inches deep (and the 
size of the bed or of a part of it), banking the sides well 
to prevent leaking, and then turning live steam under pres- 
sure into the box. The steam is provided by a portable 
boiler or traction engine. It is conveyed to the sterilizing 
box through an iron nipple inserted in the side or end. 



CHAPTER XVIII 



OTHER MANAGEMENT OF THE YE GET ABLE- 
GARDEN 

Tillage is the most important item in the subsequent 
care of the vegetable-garden. If the land has been well 
fitted before the crop is put on it, tillage need be employed 
only for the puj-pose of maintaining the surface mulch. 
This tillage may be light, rapid and easy. 

The rationale of the garden system is this: In the 
cool and ambitious days of spring, put the effort and the 
muscle into the land ; work it into condition. In the long 
and hot days of summer, keep it in condition. 

1. DOUBLE-CROPPIXG ob INTER-CROPPING 
We must now consider the crop-scheme. To do this we 
must have two definitions, to clarify the situation. In the 
first edition of this book, 1901, they were adopted in order 
to clarify the subject. 

Double-cropping which is the raising of more than one 
crop on the land in a season, is of two species: (1) suc- 
cession-cropping, or the growing of one crop after another 
on the same land; (2) companion-cropping, or the grow- 
ing of two or more crops together. 

Succession-cropping. 

Succession-cropping is a kind of short rotation. These 
are the considerations: (1) each crop in the succession 
should be able to mature in less time than the whole sea- 

(414) 



Sliccession-cro'ps 



415 



son; (2) the tillage demanded by the first crop in the series 
should be such as will leave the land in proper condition 
for the succeeding crop; (3) the crops should be so much 
unlike each other that they will not tend to deplete the 
soil by demanding similar elements, and will not carry 
diseases and insects from one crop to another. 

It is usually preferable to grow crops of different botani- 
cal families, for by this means the fertility of the soil is 
not so likely to be impaired, and diseases and insects are 
starved in the rotation. It is well to follow root-crops with 
fibrous-rooted surface-feeding crops. In some cases the 
succession may extend over parts of two years, as when 
strawberries are followed by late potatoes or cabbages. In 
-this case the strawberries are set the year before the suc- 
cession-crop is grown. A crop of rhubarb or asparagus 
may be followed, when the crop is finally turned under, by 
a short-season crop, thereby allowing the cutting of the 
asparagus or rhubarb in its last season. It is usually best 
to follow a perennial crop with an annual. 

When the succession-cropping extends into general farm 
operations, one or two entire seasons may be covered by 
each crop in the series. In this case we have a true rota- 
tion of crops, as that term is understood by most agricul- 
tural writers. The value of rotation in the vegetable-gar- 
den, by means of which lands are rested in clover or other 
sod crops, has already been discussed (Chapter XV). 

Following are examples of succession-crops: 
Strawberries, followed by main-crop cabbage or late potatoes. 
Peas, followed by cabbage, beans, tomatoes or celery. 
Onions, beans, early beets, summer squash by l^ale, turnip, 

kohlrabi, winter radish. 
Spring spinach by beans and tomatoes. 
Radish and bunch onions by early cabbage or celery. 



416 Other Management of the Vegetable-Garden 
Lettuce by beans and tomatoes. 

Early carrots by autumn spinach, kale, turnip, winter radish. 
Early potatoes, followed by fall cauliflower or turnips. 
Cucumber by spinach, kale, turnip, winter radish. 
Early sugar corn by second crop of same or autumn spinach, 

beans, tomatoes, celery. 
Early cabbage, followed by late beans (for canning), or by 

horse-radish. 
Dandelions by potatoes. 
Fall-sown spinach by strawberries. 
Kale, followed by potatoes or other main-season crop. 

These crops can be worked into succession-cropping 
schemes : 



Beans, snap. 

Beet, 

Cabbage, 

Carrot, 

Cauliflower, 

Cress, 

Kohlrabi, 

Lettuce, 



Early, or incidental crop 
Mustard, 



Onion (from bulbs), 



Parsley, 
Pea, 



Potato, 
Radish, 
vSpinach, 
Turnip. 



Late, or main crop 



Beans, shell and lima, Muskmelon, 

Beet (mostly a farm crop), Okra, 

Brussels sprouts. Onion (from seed), 

Cabbage, Parsnip, 

Carrot (farm crop). Pepper, 

Cauliflower, Potato, 

Celery, • Pumpkin, 

Corn, Salsify, 

Cucumber, Spinach (fall crop), 

Eggplant, Squash, 

Horse-radish, Sweet potato, 

Kale (fall and winter crop). Tomato, 

Kohlrabi (fall crop), Turnip and rutabaga, 

Leek, Watermelon. 



Forms of Double-cropping 417 

Companion-cropping. 

Ill companion-cropping, or the growing of two kinds of 
plants on the land simultaneously, the following items are 
to be considered : ( 1 ) the crops should be such as will 
mature at widely different seasons ; ( 2 ) one crop should be 
of distinctly less importance than the other, or be a " catch 
crop (3) the crops should be such as will profit by the 




224. Companion-cropping, in which three crops are growing at the same time. 

The main crop is cabbage (C). The lettuce (L) and radishes (R) 
mature before the cabbages require all the land. 



same methods of tillage and fertilizing; (4) so far as pos- 
sible, they should be of different botanical families or kinds, 
that they may not tend to leave the soil unbalanced or 
to breed the same kinds of insects and fungi. 

It will be seen that there is a main crop and a second- 
ary crop. Ordinarily, the main crop occupies the middle 
part, or middle and later part of the season. The second- 



418 Other Management of tlie Vegetable-Garden 



ary crop matures early, leaving the ground free for the 
other. In some cases, the same species is grown for both 
crops, as when late celery is planted between the rows of 
early celery. 

Following are examples of companion-crops : 

Radishes with beets or carrots. The radishes can be sold 

before the beets need the room. 
Corn with squashes, citron, pumpkin or beans in hills. 
Early onions and cauliflower or cabbage. 
Horse-radish with early cabbage. 
Lettuce with early cabbage. 

An example of companion-cropping, particularly adapt- 
able to the home garden, is diagrammed in Fig. 224 from 
Paul Work, Cornell Extension Bull. 14. 

2. TRANSPLANTING 

The first consideration in successful transplanting is to 
have good plants. They should be well grown. Plants 
thin, slender and soft usually collapse or suffer when ex- 
posed to field conditions. If they come from hotbeds or 
forcing-houses, they should have been hardened-off either 
in the hotbed itself or by transfer to coldframes. If the 
plants have been transplanted two or three times in the 
seed-bed, they suffer less when put in the open field. 

The second consideration is to have the land in prime 
condition. It should be in fine tilth and thoroughly and 
deeply worked. Plants live better when transplanted into 
newly turned land. Such land is moist. The plants 
quickly secure foothold. 

Transplanting is more successful and is employed to a 
larger extent in the humid climates east of the Great Lakes 



Transplanting 



419 



than in the West. In fact, in the more arid parts of the 
country it is usually discouraged, and it is recommended 
that seeds be sown where the plants are to stand. 

The perfect time to transplant is just before a rain. 
Just after a rain is also good, particularly if the weather 
comes off cloudy. Cool and cloudy days should be chosen 
if possible. When it is necessary to transplant in hot and 
dry weather, the late afternoon or evening should be chosen, 
that the plants may have time to straighten up in the 
night. When, however, the land is thoroughly prepared 
and the plants are well grown and not too large, there will 
be little difficulty in transplanting throughout the day. 

If the season is very dry, the plants may be watered. It 
is common practice to have a boy follow with a pail and 
put a dipperful of water about each plant. Or, in larger 
operations, a tank on wheels is drawn through the fields. 
After the water soaks away, the dry loose earth should be 
drawn about the plant to provide a surface mulch and to 
prevent the soil from baking. In small gardens, it is prac- 
ticable to shade the plants for a day or two by setting a 
shingle or slate on the south side of them, letting it slant 
over the plant. 

When transplanting, the plants must be kept away from 
the sun when out of the ground, and they should also be 
kept wet. It is nearly as important to wet the tops as 
the roots. The roots are wet to prevent them from dying. 
The tops are wet to prevent transpiration or evaporation 
of moisture. Puddling, or dipping the roots in mud, is 
sometimes advised as a protection, but it is less useful with 
small plants than with trees, because the fine roots are 
matted together by the operation. When transplanting 



420 Other Management of the YegetaNe-Gardeii 



by hand, it is cnstomarv to have a hoy carry the plants in 
a covered basket or box, and to drop them Just ahead of 
the planters. One boy ordinarily drops for two rows of 
planters. The boy should not drop 
faster than the plants are required 
by the workmen. 

Set the plants deep. Gardeners 
usually prefer to set them to the seed- 
2:5. Dibbers, flat and Icaf, cveu though they were an inch 
coimdricai. higher in the original seed-bed. 

This deep planting holds the plants in position and places 
the roots in the moist and cool earth. Press the earth 
firmly about the roots and the crown. 

The best tool for opening -the land is a dibber (Fig. 
225), which makes a hole without removing the earth. In 
the working hand hold the dibber : 
in the other hand hold the plant; the 
plant is lowered into the hole made 
by the dibber, and both hands are then 
pressed tightly about the plant as the 
earth is closed against it. Sometimes 
the dibber is thrust alongside the 
plant and the hole filled by pressing 
the earth against it (Fig. 226). 

Another dibber-like tool is the 
" scandigie/^ shown in Fig. 227, 226. The dibber and 
adapted from Circ. 160, Calif. Exp. *° '^^^ 

Sta., on lettuce, said to be "used for transplanting." 

If the plants are rather large, and particularly if they 
have not been transplanted before, it is well to cut off a 
part of the foliage to hinder evaporation. One-half or one- 





Transplanting 



421 




third of the top may be twisted or cut off with good results 
(Fig. 228). 

Of late years, transplanting machines drawn by horses 
have become popular for 
the planting of cabbages, 
tomatoes and other large- 
area crops. If the plants 
are well grown and of the 
right size, these machines 
work very satisfactorily. 
They not only expedite and 

T T , Till 11 227. Another form of transplanting tool. 

lessen labor, but the plants 

are more likely to live than when transplanted in the 
ordinary way. They are supplied with a watering de- 
vice. There are also various kinds of hand-transplanting 
devices that remove a large body of earth with the plant 
and drop it into a hole of similar size. These tools are 
^ ^-p useful for small areas or for amateur work, 
" but they are not adapted to general field 

operations. Machines for aiding trans- 
planting by hand have come into use, and 
are often very satisfactory. 

Some kinds of plants, of which melons 
and cucumbers are examples, do not trans- 
^'_Lx.:" plant readily. It is customary to start them 
228. To show how boxcs, pots or ou the bottoms of hard 
Zl\e1e2VaZ socls. The plants can then be taken to 
transplanting. .f-j-^g f^^i^ ^j^j^ ^^le earth lutact, and they 

will not suffer in the removal. There are various kinds 
of transplanting boxes in the market. Some melon 
growers use ordinary splint pint or quart berry baskets. 




^22 Other Management of the Yegetahle-Garden 



Others use paper oyster buckets. A useful receptacle 
is shown in Fig. 229. It is a band or strip of basket- 
splint tacked together at the end and has neither 
top nor bottom. The strip is 1-i inches 
long, and 334 inches wide, making a box 
inches deep and about 3 inches square. 
The material is cut at a basket-factory. 
These forms are nested in the hotbed or 
coldframe, filled with earth, and four or 
^'Iy^L ' to'^'staS fi^^ ^^^^^ planted in each. They are 
readily moved by running a spade, flat 
trowel or a shingle under them. A box makes a hill of . 
plants. Note the discussion on page 357. 

One of the ways to handle cucumbers and melons is to 
plant on sods, which are laid bottom up in the hotbed. 
They are cut into squares of about four inches. A little 
fine earth is sifted over and between them, in which the 
seeds are planted. With the heat and moisture of the 
bed, these sods decay and the plants thrive; but they will 
hold their shape for a month or more (Fig. 230). 

Old tin fruit-cans are sometimes used for this purpose. 
The cans are thrown into a fire, when the tops and bot- 
toms melt off, and the sides are then fastened together 
with a tack or a bit of wire and are used as forms in 
which to grow plants. One difficulty with them is that 
they are too large and take up too much room. They are 
relatively too deep. 

If the grower has a greenhouse equipment, he may use 
2-inch or 3-inch pots (Fig, 230) ; but unless he has the 
pots on hand for other uses, it might not pay to buy for 
this particular purpose. They are easy to handle and to 



Transplant i fig 



423 



store, and plants thrive in them admirably; their uni- 
formity makes them very handy. 

It is customary to handle plants in flats (Fig. 230). 
These are shal- 
low boxes 
about 3 inches 
deep, and of 
any convenient 
size. A box 15 
X 20, or 18 X 
24 inches is 
easily handled. 
The boxes may 
be made to 
order ; but many gardeners make them from soap boxes, by 
sawing each box into several flats or sections and adding 
bottoms. Such a box will hold 100 plants if they are not 
transplanted, or one-third or one-half that number of trans- 
planted plants. From flats a quick man can transplant 
5,000 to 6,000 plants in a day if the soil is light and in 
goodt condition. With a horse transplanting machine sev- 
eral times this number can be set. Ten acres of cabbage 
plants sometimes may be set in a day by means of a horse 
machine. From 20,000 to 40.000 plants have been set in 
one day. 

3. WEEDS 

Weeds are mere incidents in good farming. They are 
the constants in poor farming. This is not because the 
good farmer spends more time killing weeds, but because 
he tills better and manages his land more skilfully. It 




424 Other Management of the Tegetahle-Garden 



is in neglected areas that weeds are most prevalent, — • 
along the roadside, in the run-ont meadow or pasture, in 
the barnyard or front yard, in the poorly tilled vegetable- 
garden. Many farmers seem to think that good farming 
consists in killing weeds and bugs; but the best farming 
consists in not having them. Of course the farmer can- 
not expect ever to be rid of these neighbors, but he should 
think more of prevention than of eradication. 

A weed is a plant that is not wanted. Horse-radish 
may Ije a weed in a potato field, and potatoes may be 
weeds in a horse-radish field. Potatoes are weeds in po^ 
tato fields when potatoes are planted too thick. 
, There is no royal road to weedless farming. Following 
are some of the means of keeping weeds in check : 

1. Practice rotation ; keep ahead of the weeds. Certain 
weeds follow certain crops; when these weeds became seri- 
ous, change the crop. 

2. Change the method of tillage. If a weed persists, 
try deeper or shallower plowing, or a different kind of 
liarrow or cultivator, or till at different times and seasons. 

3. Harrow the land frequently when it is fallow or is 
waiting for a crop. Harrow it, if possible, after seeding 
and before the plants are high enough to be broken by the 
implement. Potatoes, corn and other things can be har- 
rowed after they are several inches high ; and sometimes 
the land may be harrowed before the plants are up. 

4. Practice frequent tillage with light surface-working 
tools throughout the season. This is hard on weeds and 
does the remaining plants (tlie crop) good. 

5. Pull or hoe out stray weeds that escape the wheel 
tools. 



Weeds 



425 



6. Clean the land as soon as the crop is harvested : and 
if the land lies open in the fall, till it occasionally. Many 
persons kept their premises scrupulously clean in the early 
season but let them run wild in the fall, and thus is the 
land seeded for the following year. 

7. Use clean seed, particularly of crops sown broadcast, 
and which, therefore, do not admit of tillage. 

8. Do not let the weeds go to seed on the manure piles, 
in the fence corners, and along the highway. 

9. Avoid coarse and raw stable manure, particularly if 
it is suspected of harboring bad company. Commercial 
fertilizers may be used for a time on foul land. 

10. Sheep and pigs sometimes can be employed to clean 
the weeds from foul and fallow land. Land infested with 
girasoles (Jerusalem artichokes) are readily cleaned if 
hogs are turned in. 

11. Induce your neighbor to keep his land as clean as 
you keep yours. 

Eank pigweeds and their ilk are a compliment to a 
man^s soil. Land that will not grow weeds will not grow 
crops, — for crops are only those particular kinds of weeds 
that a man wants to raise. "Weeds have taught us the 
lesson of good tillage. There is no indication that they 
intend to remit their efforts in our behalf. 

4. INSECTS AND FUNGI 
The vegetable-gardener must expect the visits of ener- 
getic bugs and furtive fungi. Many of these squatters are 
beyond the direct control of the cultivator. The gardener 
must circumvent them rather than combat them. He must 
avoid them by means of strategy. 



426 Other Management of the Tegetahle-Garden 

Insects that feed openly on the tops of plants are usu- 
ally amenable to direct treatment with poisons or other 
sprays. Of this class are potato-bugs and plant-lice. 
Those troubles that appear in the inner parts of 
plants or in their roots are not open to direct treatment, 
and in such cases the general management of the place 
must be relied on to keep the enemies in check. Insects 
and diseases are incidental or secondary facts in every 
garden plantation. The primary thing is to make the 
plants grow; the secondary thing is to keep the bugs off. 
One's attitude toward these invaders must be the same as 
that toward weeds: one must rely first on management. 

In these popular writings, many other creatures are 
naturally included with insects, as millipedes, slugs, nema- 
todes, sowbugs, and mites; but the general strategy and 
treatment are the same. 

Following are some of the means by which the vegetable- 
gardener may hope to lessen or avert the losses from in- 
sects and diseases: 

1. By means of rotation in crops and in methods of 
tillage. The shorter the rotation, the less is the liability 
to serious insect attacks. It is rare that insects and 
diseases appear suddenly in great numbers. They increase 
year by year, and in a favorable season prove very destruc- 
tive. If the kinds "of crops have been various, the prob- 
ability is that they will not have gained a serious foot- 
hold, and that they will be held in comparative subjec- 
tion. It is essential that the crops of a rotation be of such 
different kinds that the same kinds of insects or fungi will 
not thrive on them. 

2. If the land becomes seriously infested with any one 



Insects and Fungi 



427 



pest, it is best in general to discontinue, for two or three 
years, the growing of the crop on Avhich they live. This 
ordinarily is cheaper and quicker than to endeavor to de- 
stroy the pest by direct means. This is well illustrated 
in the case of the clubroot of cabbage and cauliflower. 
The disease may be lessened somewhat by thoroughly dress- 
ing the land with lime; but it is usually cheaper, and 
always more effective, to cease the growing of cabbage, 
cauliflower and turnips for a time, and to grow other 
kinds of crops on the land. 

3. Make every effort to secure strong, stocky, continu- 
ous-growing plants. Even if they are attacked, they have 
a better chance of coming through alive. Weak and soft 
plants are poor for any purpose, but they are particularly 
unsatisfactory when they must withstand the attacks of 
insects and fungi. 

4. Destroy seriously affected plants, particularly those 
attacked by fungi. If the vines are thrown on the man- 
ure pile, the probability is that the disease will be dis- 
tributed the next year in the manure. If the manure is 
thoroughly rotted and composted, much of the danger will 
be averted ; but even in that case it is wise not to take the 
risk with such serious diseases as clubroot, potato blight 
and rot, and the blight of melons, cucumbers and toma- 
toes. In autumn, all diseased plants and products should 
be collected and burned. 

5. On infected seed-beds, use new or sterilized soil. Do 
not add to the seed-bed soil from a field in which diseased 
crops of the given kind have grown (page 413). 

6. Insects and fungi can be killed. Nowadays, spray- 
ing is an economical means for many of the pests. ITever- 



428 Other Management of the Vegetable-Garden 



theless, the old method of hand-picking is not gone by, 
and the gardener must not hesitate to resort to it on oc- 
casion. The gardener should know what insects and 
diseases are likel}' to appear on any crop and then be pre- 
pared to fight them. The time to make this preparation is 
before the crops are planted. In the winter, he should 
secure his pumps and nozzles, buy materials for the vari- 
ous mixtures, and inform himself as to what difficulties 
are likely to confront him. He is then forehanded and 
knows immediately what to do when the trouble comes. 
Every gardener should l)uy a good book on insects and 
another on fungous diseases, and then keep up to date 
by reading the agricultural papers and the experiment- 
station bulletins. 

An essential point in the application of any spray or 
other material is timeliness. The minute the trouble ap- 
pears, the antidote should be applied. The pest may be 
dispatched more readily at this time, and also with less 
expense of material and effort; and the plants will not 
have suffered seriously. Another important item is thor- 
oughness. A bug will not go to get the poison : the poison 
must be put where the bug is. The only safe way is to 
put the poison on every part of the plant. One thorough 
spraying, which covers the plant, is worth more than a 
half dozen efforts when the operator merely sprinkles the 
tops of the leaves. Be sure tbat the spray is of the right 
kind and well made : then do not be afraid to use it. 

The substances or materials employed for the destruc- 
tion of the insect pests are insecticides and those for the 
destruction and control of fungous diseases are fungicides. 
The prevailing kinds may be listed, together with state- 



insecticides and Fungicides 



429 



ments of the ingredients; how to compound and nse them 
is the subject of many bulletins and popular articles, to 
which the reader is referred (also previous pages). 
Insecticides 

Arsenate of lead. 

4-10 lbs. to 100 gals, water. 
Paris green. 

Used in place of arsenate of lead on potatoes, usually 
combined with bordeaux mixture. 
Hellebore. 

4 oz. to 2 or 3 gals, water. 
1 lb. to 5 lbs. flour or slaked lime. 
Kerosene emulsion. 

% lb. soap, 1 gal. water, 2 gals, kerosene; dilute with 
5-7 parts water for use on dormant trees, and with 
10-15 parts for plant-lice on foliage. 
Carbolic acid emulsion. 

1 lb. soap, 1 gal. water, 1 pint crude carbolic acid ; dilute 
with 30 parts water for use against root-maggots. 

Tobacco. 

Nicotine is used in many forms and preparations. 
Whale-oil soap. 

1 lb. soap to 5-10 gals, water. 
Miscible oils. 

Preparations are on the market; for use specially against 
scale insects on woody plants. 
Lime-sulfur. 

Several f ormultTe ; it can be purchased in the prepared dry 
state ; used specially against scale insects on trees. 
Fumigation. 

Greenhouses and hotbeds may be fumigated with tobacco 
preparations, or with the deadly hydrocyanic acid gas. 

Fungicides 

Bordeaux mixture. 

A standard fungicide, the use of which is now well under- 
stood ; it may be purchased in prepared dry form. 



« 



430 Other Management of the Vegetable-Garden 

There are several formulre; one of the best is 4 lbs. 
copper sulfate, 4 lbs. lime, 50 gals, water. 
Lime-sulfur, 

Both fungicide and insecticide. 
Corrosive sublimate. 

1 oz, to 7% gals, water; for treating seed potatoes for 
scab. 
Formaldehyde. 

1 pint in 30 gals, water; for treating seed potatoes for 
scab. 

This book is not a treatise on insect pests and diseases 
of vegetable-garden plants; yet condensed advice on the 
procedure in combating them is given with each of the 
vegetables in the regular sequence. 

But some insects and similar animals are general 
marauders. They attack several or many kinds of plants, 
and therefore cannot be discussed under the particular 
crops without too much repetition. They are discussed 
here (by Crosby and Leonard, for this publication). 

Cutworms and army-worms. 

Cutworms are smooth, nearly naked caterpillars, 1 to 2 
inches long, usually dull colored and indistinctly marked 
with spots and stripes. Many species have the habit of 
cutting off young plants at the surface of the ground or 
just above it. They feed mostly at night and in the day 
remain hidden away under stones or rubbish or in the 
ground. The adults are dull-colored rather heavy-bodied 
moths. More than a score of species has been recorded as 
pests of vegetables. Under certain circumstances almost 
any cutworm may become so abundant that it is forced to 
migrate for food and thus assume the army-worm habit. 



Cutworms 



431 



The name army-Avorm is restricted to four or five species in 
which this habit is pronounced. 

Control of cutworms. 

The means employed for the control of cutworms varies 
according to the crop, the conditions under which it is 
grown and on the habits of the species causing the injury. 

In small vegetable-gardens and greenhouses hand-pick- 
ing may be practiced to advantage. Careful watch of the 
plants should be kept and whenever injury is noticed the 
soil around the base of the plants should be searched and 
the cutworms destroyed. Shingles or small boards laid 
about the beds will form attractive hiding places for the 
worms during the day; here they may be easily found and 
destroyed. When such plants as tomatoes are transplanted, 
they may be protected by using cardboard or tin cylin- 
ders sunk a short distance in the soil. Tin-cans with the 
top and bottom removed are convenient for this purpose. 
Greenhouses often become infested by cutworms in the 
rotted sod used in the beds. This may be prevented by 
sterilizing the soil with steam before using. 

Probably the most practical, cheap and convenient 
method of cutworm control is the use of poisoned baits. 
These may be employed equally as well in the home garden, 
greenhouse or in the field. A bait made according to the 
following formula is effective against the variegated cut- 
Vv^orm and others of similar habits: 

Bran 20 pounds, 

Paris green .... 1 pound, 

Molasses ...... 2 quarts, 

Oranges or lemons ... 3 fruits, 

Water 3 gallons (about). 



432 Other Management of the Vegetahle-Garden 

The dry bran and paris green are thoroughly mixed in a 
tub or similar receptacle. The juice of the oranges or 
lemons is squeezed into the water; the remaining pulp 
and peel is chopped into fine bits and added to the water. 
The molasses is dissolved in the w^ater and the bran and 
poison wet with it^ the mixture being constantly stirred 
so as to dampen tlie mash thoroughly. Only enough water 
should be used just to moisten the mash, but not enough 
to make it sloppy. 

This quantity of bait will treat about three acres. The 
material should be scattered broadcast evenly over the in- 
fested area at nightfall. If applied in the day, it dries out 
and is not then attractive to the cutworms. In the gar- 
den or greenhouse a small quantity of the bait may be 
placed near each plant. 

Control of army-worms. 

To arrest a migration of army-worms, plow a furrow 
across their line of march Avith the vertical side of the 
furrow towards the field to be protected. At intervals 
dig post holes in the bottom of the furrow as traps for 
the caterpillars and scatter poison bait along the edge of 
the field to kill those that succeed in crossing the furrow. 

Wireiuorms. 

These insects are elongate hard-shelled brownish larvae 
abundant in old sod land. They eat off the smaller roots, 
bore into tubers and destroy germinating seed. The adults 
are medium-sized dull-colored snapping or click beetles. 
The larvae normally feed on grass roots and thrive in old 
sod land. 



Wireivoims. Grubs. Gi'asslioppers 433 



Practice a short rotation of crops for wireworms, in 
which the land is not left in sod for more than two or at 
most three years. Do not plant vegetable crops susceptible 
to injury in land known to be infested. • Peas and buck- 
wheat may be used as intermediate crops between sod and 
vegetables. In the garden, poison baits are sometimes used 
for killing the wireworms. Dip small bunches of clover in 
paris green water and place them in the field covered by 
pieces of boards. Sweetened cornmeal dough poisoned 
with paris green may be used as a bait. The bait should 
be distributed after the ground is fitted out before the crop 
is planted. 

White grubs. 

These are large fat white curved grubs found in land 
recently in sod. The parent insect is a large brown June 
beetle (the familiar " June-bug The grubs feed on the 
roots of grasses and thrive in old sod land. When such 
land is broken up and planted to vegetable crops, the grubs 
concentrate their feeding, often causing great damage. 

For the white grub, practice a short rotation of crops 
in which the land is not left in sod more than two or at 
the most three years. Do not plant vegetable crops on 
land known to be infested. As an intermediate crop be- 
tween sod and vegetables, buckwheat, alfalfa, clover, and 
other leguminous crops may be raised. Old strawberry 
beds are likely to be badly infested and should be treated 
the same as sod land. 

Grasshoppers. 

Many vegetable crops are liable to injury by grasshop- 
pers. Use the poisoned bait described for cutworms. 



434 Otlier Management of the Vegetahle-Gardeii 



Red-spider {Tetranychus telarvas). 

The red-spider is not an insect; it is a minute web- 
spinning mite, varying in color from yellowish to greenish 
or reddish, that* infests the underside of the leaves of 
many plants. The mites puncture the leaves, causing small 
light-colored spots. AYhen abundant the leaves become 
whitish, shrivel and die. 

In the greenhouse, the number of red-spiders can be 
reduced by spraying with clear water, using a nozzle that 
gives a stiff spray without drenching the beds. In the 
open, spray with " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco extract, % 
pint in 100 gallons water in which 5 or 6 pounds soap have 
been dissolved. 

BJister-heetles. 

Elongate long-legged beetle? of various colors that often 
attack vegetable crops in swarms are known as blister- 
beetles. As far as known the larvae feed on grasshopper 
eggs. A dozen species have been reported as attacking 
vegetables. 

Blister-beetles are difficult to control because they are 
injurious in the adult stage. They are resistant to poisons 
and move readily from plant to plant. On plants on which 
it is safe to use an arsenical spray, at the first appear- 
ance of the beetles spray with arsenate of lead (paste), 
3 or 4 pounds in 50 gallons water or with 1 pound 
paris green in 50 gallons water, adding 1 pound lime 
to prevent burning of the foliage. In the case of 
choice plants it might pay to screen them with mosquito 
netting. 



Flea-beetles, Viliite-jly 



435 



Flea-l)eetles. 

These are small usually dark-colored leaf-beetles, that 
have the hind legs fitted for jumping. The larvae usually 
feed on the roots of plants but some of them mine the 
leaves or petioles. The adults eat holes or pits in the 
leaves. Most species spend the winter under leaves or 
rubbish. Nearly a score of species of flea-beetles has 
been reported as attacking vegetable crops. 

Keep plants well sprayed with bordeaux mixture. It acts 
as a deterrent, driving the flea-beetles away. It is most 
effective when combined with 2 pounds paris green or 4 or 5 
pounds arsenate of lead (paste) in 100 gallons. In some 
cases it is good practice to dip plants in arsenate of lead 
(paste), 1 pound in 10 gallons water before transplanting. 
Injury to plants in the seed-bed may be prevented by 
screening with cheesecloth, as for cabbage root-maggot. 

Greenlioiise white-fly {Aleyrodes vaporariorum) . 

The adult is a minute mealy white four-winged fly. In 
its immature stage the insect is scale-like in form, pale 
greenish in color and is found on the underside of the 
leaves. The life cycle requires about five weeks and breed- 
ing is continuous throughout the year under greenhouse 
conditions. Tomatoes, cucumbers, melons, and lettuce are 
especially liable to attack when grown under glass. It 
often happens that when plants are started under glass and 
then transplanted in the open, they become infested while 
young, and the white-flies continue to develop on them 
out-of-doors, often causing serious injury. 

For destroying white-fly on tomatoes and cucumbers 
grown under glass, potassium cyanide should be used at 



> 



436 Other Management of the Vegetable-Garden 

the rate of 1 ounce (or sodium cyanide, % ounce) to 3,000 
cubic feet of space contained in the house and the fumi- 
gation should continue all night. Fumigate only on dark 
dry nights when there is no wind. The house should be 
as dry as practicable and the temperature not above 60 
degrees F. Use with great care, as the material is very 
poisonous. All forcing-house and hotbed plants should be 
wholly free of white-fly when set in the field. 

Root-knot nematode or eel-worm {Heterodera radicicola). 

In the warmer parts of the country, many vegetable 
crops suffer serious injury from minute worms that in- 
fest the roots, causing swellings or nodules. They are very 
troublesome in irrigated regions and in greenhouses. The 
worms can persist in moist soil for a long time. They are 
real worms, not the larvae of insects. 

To free fields of the root-knot nematode, rotate for two 
or three years with a crop not susceptible to the disease 
and that grows rank enough to keep out weeds that harbor 
the pest. Immune varieties of cowpeas, such as the Iron, 
followed by winter wheat or rye, are sometimes used in 
Florida for this purpose. 

In greenhouses, renew the soil from an uninfested field 
or sterilize with live steam under pressure. Shallow beds 
may be disinfected by applying a weak solution of for- 
maldehyde, 1 part of the 40 per cent commercial solu- 
tion in 100 parts of water, using 1 to 1% gals, for every 
square yard of surface. 

Millipedes. 

The millipedes, or "thousand-legged worms,'' are elon- 
gate more or less cylindrical creatures, having a distinct 



Millipedes. Slugs 



437 



head and a body consisting of well-defined segments^ which 
is not divided into a thorax and abdomen as in insects. 
Each segment, except the first four, bears two pairs of 
legs. They prefer decaying vegetable matter as food but 
under certain circumstances attack root-crops such as car- 
rots, beets and potatoes; infest the heads of cauliflower, 
cabbage and lettuce; attack seed beans, peas; eat holes in 
the fruit of tomatoes and melons where they touch the 
ground. 

'No satisfactory method is devised for control under field 
or garden conditions ; trap the millipedes under boards or 
slices of potato laid on the ground ; in the greenhouse they 
may be trapped in the same way or by using lumps of 
dough sweetened with molasses. Lime or tobacco dust 
placed around the base of the plants will help to drive 
them away. 

Slugs. 

Slugs are snail-like creatures that either lack the shell 
entirely or have it reduced to a thin plate. They do not 
belong to the insect tril^es. They eat holes in the leaves 
of lettuce, celery, seedling beans and other vegetables. They 
often bore into ripening tomatoes. The word " slug " is 
sometimes used for the soft and slimy larvae of some kinds 
of insects, as the cherry-slug, and sometimes of the larvse 
of the potato-beetle; but here the true snail-like slug is 
intended. 

Methods for the control of slugs that are practicable for 
all crops have not been fully worked out. On crops such 
as field beans, where a poison can be safely used, good re- 
sults may be obtained by spraying with arsenate of lead 
at the rate of 4 pounds in 100 gals, of water. Slugs may 



438 Other Management of the Vegetable-Garden 

also be killed by using a poisoned bait made according to 
the formula for cutworms. This bait should be scattered 
in small lumps around the plants in the evening. Keep 
poultry away from the bait. Dusting the plants and the 
surrounding ground with air-slaked lime or land-plaster 
will have a tendency to keep slugs away. Bordeaux mix- 
ture also has a deterrent effect and on some crops may be 
used to advantage. In some cases the plants may be 
sprayed with arsenate of lead either alone or in combina- 
tion with bordeaux mixture. 

Of course the reader understands that insecticides and 
fungicides may be poisonous to human beings, and that 
due precautions should be taken. All poisons should be 
labelled and kept out of reach. The greatest care should 
be exercised in the use of hydrocyanic gas fumigation. All 
carelessness everywhere should be avoided. 



CHAPTEE XIX 



MARKETING, STORING, DRYING 

Probably half the profits in commercial vegetable-gar- 
dening depend on the marketing. Where there are ten men 
who can grow a product to advantage there may be only 
one who can sell it to advantage. Horticulturists have not 
even yet learned the art of advertising. They are afraid 
to spend money for natty packages, attractive labels, and 
advertisements in local papers. The bases of good mar- 
keting are at least five: (1) a good and seasonable prod- 
uce; (2) uniform grades in the marketed product; (3) 
good packing; (4) attractive packages; (5) honesty on 
the part of both grower and seller. Given these qualifi- 
cations, the gardener need not hesitate to push his prod- 
uct and to ask the buyer to pay him an extra price. 

Other things being equal, the local market is most to 
be desired. The grower is known, and he has an oppor- 
tunity to establish a reputation. He can hold his cus- 
tomers year by year. All the business may be within his 
own observation. He knows what is done with his prod- 
ucts. There is demand for vegetables and fruits at good 
prices. In any city of 10,000 and upwards a special trade 
can be established, particularly if the city is mature. This 
is often denied, but it is nevertheless true. If the grower 
sells his products in attractive packages, with neat labels 

(439) 



4:4:0 



MarJceting, Storing, Drying 



if need be, and properly sorted and arranged, and places 
tlieni in the hands of an enterprising grocer who caters 
to the best trade, he will not need to peddle his wares. 
The grower for the home market must be sure to have his 
vegetables in season; and he will do well, also, to provide 
a continuous and varied supply, for thereby he can hold 
his customers. He must set a standard and live up 
to it. 

In truck-farming, however, the man grows for a less 
personal market. His produce partakes more of the na- 
ture of staples, that have more or less generalized market 
quotations. The trucker must meet these general market 
demands and conditions, as expressed by salesmen and 
prices-current, rather than the wishes of individual 
customers. With him quantity-production is a major 
item. 

The present remarks, therefore, may not apply to those 
^vho grow things on a large scale, but such persons usu- 
ally find special means and outlets for disposing of their 
jjroducts : because they have foimd such outlets is the 
reason for tlie growth of their business. 

To do the best with one's products, the grower must 
keep track of the market. If possible, he should visit the 
market. He should consult the trade papers. He should 
ask his dealer about the new ideas in packages and pack- 
ing. Ordinarily he will be able to secure better informa- 
tion if he deals continuously with one reliable firm. 

This is a book about vegetable-gardening, not about 
selling ; yet some of the homelier aspects of marketing may 
be discussed, particularly as respects grading, packing, 
and common storage, inasmuch as these afPairs react on 



TJie Assorting of the Product 



441 



the growing of the crop. The reader must not expect 
this book to enter the field of cooperation, market asso- 
ciations, transportation, refrigeration, cold storage, com- 
mission and auction systems, food preservation, and the 



The sorting and packing of a crop should begin in the 
field. The better the crop is grown, the fewer will be the 
culls and the less the labor of grading. 

In crops which are not to be carefully sorted into sizes 
and packed by hand, as potatoes and many of the root 
crops, the vegetables may be placed directly in the pack- 
age in which the product is to be kw,^^:^_^=^^^^ 



crate is much better because it is '^''''p- 
cheaper, more durable and it stows better on the wagon 
or in the store-house. One tier of boxes may be piled on 
another, but this is impossible with baskets unless one 
resorts to expensive staging. 

In handling the products in the field and in the store- 
house, it is important that they be kept dry and cool. 
Over-ripeness and decay are then prevented. They should 
be put on the market or in storage quickly, before they 
have been subjected to unfavorable conditions of weather 
or to accidents. Some vegetables, as onions, are not in- 



like. 



1. GRADING AND PACKING 



taken to the market. Nothing is 
better for the handling of heavy 
products than a bushel box (Fig. 
231) or the crate. Formerly 
baskets of various sizes were used 
for this purpose, but the box or 




231. Serviceable bushel box. It 
is 16 inches square, and 8 inches 



442 



Marketing, Storing, Drying 



jured by being left in the sun for a few hours or even 
days ; but, as a rule, it is better to keep the vegetables in 
partial shade, particularly such as remain green or soft 
in their marketable stage. 

If one has any quantity of vegetables to handle, it is 
necessary to have a packing-house or shed. In this place 
there should be tables or counters on which the sorting or 
grading can be performed. If possible, this house should 
have a pit or cellar at one end in which vegetables can be 
kept temporarily or even stored for the mnter. The place 
should be provided with pipe water, tubs or vats for wash- 
ing vegetables, and devices for trimming, tying and 
bunching. 

All vegetables not sold in bulk on the general market 
should be sorted and graded; and even the bulk products 
are now graded, as potatoes. Grading contributes not 
only to the appearance of the product, but also to the 
snugness of packing. Vegetables like melons, tomatoes 
and others used as table delicacies and accessories, are 
usually sold by the smallest specimens in the package 
rather than by the larger ones. If the specimens are sorted 
into two grades, the smaller ones usually sell as well as the 
mixed lot, and the larger ones sell much better. Since 
the grading of vegetables is a matter of mental pattern, 
the grade varies with every packer, and it is therefore 
often difficult to secure sufficient uniformity to enable one 
to sell his products under a trade-mark. However, if one 
has uniform packages and gives close attention to the 
details of the business, he should be able to establish a 
series of grades that will be associated with his name in 
the market. 



Grading and Packing 



443 



The uniformity of grading is now much facilitated by 
the mechanical graders ; and given markets usually demand 
a particular kind of grade and pack of the hand-sorted 
products, as melons, celery, rhubarb. A certain number 
of stalks of asparagus may be required in the bunch, and 
a certain number of tomatoes in the tray. 

In the grading and the packing, certain admonitions 
may be stated, having in mind the market-garden type of 
enterprise : 

1. Pack and sell only the products that are mature, 
well grown, free from blemish, bruises, insects and disease 
injury. 

2. See that the vegetables are carefully cleaned, neatly 
and uniformly arranged or tied, and that they arrive fresh 
and unwilted. 

3. Choose the package itself with care, to meet the de- 
mands of the particular market; see that it is clean, bright 
and unbroken. 

4. Pack snug; see that the receptacle is full, and that 
all weights and capacities are full measure, and that all 
bunches are full count. Snug packing is particularly im- 
portant if the vegetables are to be shipped any consider- 
able distance. A large part of the vegetables in the mar- 
kets is handled from ten to fifteen times from the field 
to the consumer. Vegetables packed tight not only bear 
transportation better, but they keep longer and present a 
more attractive appearance. In the better kinds of vege- 
tables this firm packing is secured by placing each speci- 
men by hand. 

5. Pack the vegetables cool. They should go into the 
packages with a low temperature, rather than warm. They 



444 Marketing, Storing, Drying 

keep longer and hold their quality better under such con- 
ditions. This is particularly true of dessert and perish- 
able products. 

6. Use relativel}^ small packages, with all the better 
kinds of vegetables. Aim, so far as possible, at special 
and dessert trade. The warmer the season, the smaller 
should be the quantity. 

7. Look out for ventilation. If one is shipping green 
stuff, as cabbage, spinach and kale, the package should be 




232. A lettuce re-pack, 12 heads in a layer or tier; empty paper- 
lined box at right. 

open to air to prevent heating, particularly if as large as 
barrels. It is Avell to use open or ventilated packages for 
all green vegetables in warm weather, at least for those 
to be shipped long distances. 

8. In the finer or dessert vegetables it is well to pack 
in a distinctive package or to use a trade-mark or label 
that will distinguish one's products from others. This is 
essential if one is to establish an individual reputation and 
to hold customers from year to year. With such heavy 
and staple products as potatoes, beets, or cabbages, it is 



Grading and PacTcing 



usually inadvisable to attempt this kind of marketing ; but 
even with them it can sometimes be undertaken. It is 
usual to associate a special package with fruits, but not 
with vegetables; but this condition of affairs is to be 
changed. The use of hampers, paper cartons, splint boxes, 
and other receptacles allow the making of very attractive 
packages. For the finer products and the best markets 
the receptacles are often neatly lined with paper. 

9. If the grower or seller reaches an individual cus- 
tomer whose attention 
he desires to hold, he 
may well afford to sell 
under a guaranty. 

10. Be not misled 
by mere quantity re- 
sults. In the end, one's 
success depends on the 
cjuality, regularity aud 
dependability of the 
produce, — that is, on 
the satisfaction to the 

233. Sweet potatoes graded and ungraded. 

consumer. 

The nature of good packages for vegetables is suggested 
in the pictures. Fig. 232 is adapted from Stanley S. 
Eogers, Calif. Circ. 160, on lettuce-growing in California : 
After the lettuce is cut it is hauled directly to the pack- 
ing house where it is sorted, trimmed and repacked. That 
which is to be shipped a considerable distance, and espe- 
cially during warm weather, should always be protected 
from the heat ; a layer of chopped ice should be placed be- 
tween the bottom and the second layer of lettuce, and one 




446 



Marketing, Storing, Drying 



on the top layer. If the pony crate is nsed the ice is put 
on the top layer only. The inside of the crates should be 
lined with heavy paper, which prevents the contents from 

drying and aids in keep- 
ing it cool. Lettuce is 
shipped in iced or refrig- 
erator cars, the tempera- 
ture of which should be 
kept as even as possible." 
This quotation explains 

234. A dozen cauliflowers in a serviceable ^ 

tray. See also Fig. 31. the carc that is takcu in 

the grading, packing and shipping of high-class vegetables. 

Graded and ungraded sweet potatoes are shown in Fig. 
233 (adapted from H. C. Thompson, Farmers' Bull. 970). 
Figs. 234 to 237 carry the suggestions still farther. Prod- 
uce fit for these packages and for such care must be 
well grown, so that there will be the minimum of loss in 
the sorting. The efficiency 
(or the lack of it) of 
vegetable-gardening a n d 
fruit-growing is often 
measured by the produce 
left behind in culls and 
waste rather than l3y the 
first-class proportion that 
finds its way to market. 

In truck - growing, a 
much heavier and coarser 
package must be used; sometimes the produce shipments 
are in bulk. The product finds its way largely to whole- 
sale markets, or at least to disposition in large lots. Some 





The Storing of Vegetables 447 



of the packages employed in long-distance shipments are 
shown in Fig. 238. The crate, splint-basket and barrel 
types prevail in this kind of commerce. 

2. STORING 

It is impossible to state principles that apply to storing 
all kinds of vegetables, for these products include fruits, 
roots and leaves. Some of them must 




236. Crate of uniform 
melons, just twelve 
grown and sorted to 
fit the crate. 



237. A neat basket of celery. 



be kept warm and some cool. Others, as onions and 
squashes, must be dry; still others, as cabbages and roots,, 
must be kept moist. Each class of vegetable is a law 
unto itself. 

"With the exception of root and tuber crops, most vege- 
tables are uncertain in storage unless kept in an estab- 
lishment cooled by artificial means, and which, therefore, 
maintains uniformity of moisture and temperature. In 
general, it is better to sell in the fall, even at a somewhat 
reduced price, than to go to the expense and risk of stor- 
ing. When, however, the fall market is so low as to pre- 
clude any profit, storing is a necessary recourse. Persons 
who have become expert in the handling of any one vege- 



448 



Marl'eting, Storing, Drying 



table may store it with relative safety. If one has had no 
experience in the storing of those vegetables that are diffi- 
cult to keep, it is generally better to put them in 
the hands of a person vrho makes a business of cold 
storage and pay kim for his labor, investment, and ex- 
perience. 

In general, a low temperature is essential to the keep- 
ing of the product. It prevents over-ripening* and delays 

the work of fungi and 
other disorganizing 
agents. Usually it 
is well to keep the 
temperature r e 1 a - 
tively near the freez- 
ing point; but there 
are some vegetables, 
as melons and sweet 
potatoes, that are in- 
jured by a low tem- 
perature. Products 
either over-ripe or 
markedly under-ripe 
usually do not keep 
well. It is essential 
to any success that 
the specimens be per- 
fectly sound when 
put in storage, and in tlie proper state of maturity. Xo 
doubt some of the loss in the storing of cabbages, for 
example, is due to the infection of the plants with the 
rot fungus before the heads are put in storage. Onions 




23S. Vegetable containers for long-distance 
shipments. 



storage 



449 



seriously attacked by the smut or rust may not be ex- 
23ectecl to keep well, however good the storage. 

The following essentials apply to the storing of most 
vegetables: (1) Protect from frost; (2) keep them cool, 
to prevent decay; (3) keep them relatively moist, to 
avoid excessive evaporation and wilting; (4) avoid a 
wet and stagnant evaporation, as this is likely to engender 
rot, particularly when the temperature is too high; (5) 
protect from natural heating or fermentation; (6) pro- 
vide change of air, without exposing the products to such 
draughts that they shrivel. 

Several kinds of storage are illustrated in earlier chap- 
ters, for potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions, cabbage, celery. 
The more general-purpose forms are shown herewith, in 
enough detail to suggest the essential points. 

For home use, it is well to store roots and tubers in 
moist sand or in sphagnum moss (such as nurserymen 
and florists use). Beets, carrots, parsnips, and potatoes 
stored in this way keep plump and fresh for a twelvemonth 
or more, if the temperature is kept low enough to pre- 
vent sprouting. The reason for this good result is that 
the sand or moss prevents evaporation and maintains uni- 
formity of conditions. 

The house cellar is commonly one of the poorest places 
in which to store vegetables, particularly if it contains a 
heater for the residence. In such case it is likely to be 
too warm and too dry. The vegetables shrivel and tend 
to start into growth, or to decay quickly. Cellars that 
contain much vegetable-matter are likely to make the 
house unwholesome unless there is ample ventilation and 
pains is taken to pick over the vegetables from time to 



450 



Mar'keting, Storing, Drying 



time and remove all imsoTind specimens. If tlie house 
cellar is used for the storing of vegetables, it is well to 
have a special vent or chimne3^ This may be a cheap 
board affair extending up the back side of the house as 
high as the roof. This fine carries 
ol¥ the foul and warm air, and 
thereby keeps the cellar sweet and at 
a relatively low temperature. In some 
cases an extra flue may be provided in 
the chimney when the house is built, 
and the warmth of the chimney will 
cause a strong draft. Fig. 239 shows 
a simple intake shaft for cool air 
and an open window for the out- 
going warm air (from Cornell Eead- 
ing-Course for the Farm Home, No. 
113) : "Warm air should be per- 
239. Intake and outlet for mitted to pass out at the top of the 
house cellar. jooui through vcutilators, and cool 
air from outside should be admitted to the room at the 
bottom. In a cellar this can be accomplished by means 
of a shaft leading diovro. the wall from a window and 
opening near the floor. A few windows at the top of 
the wall constitute the system of ventilation for most farm 
cellars.^^ 

The old-fashioned " outside cellar " usually gives better 
conditions for the storing of vegetables than the house cel- 
lar. This structure has been much advised of late, and 
many improved plans are available. It is likely to be 
uniform in temperature and moisture conditions. With 
various modifications these cellars are used largely by mar- 




Outside Cellars 



451 



ket-gardeners for the storing of roots, leek, celery and other 
products that do not require a dry air. 

The outside cellar is little more than a pit sunk to the 
level of the ground with a gable roof covered with earth 
and sod so that frost cannot enter; or if the ground is 
likely to be moist, the pit is built partially above ground. 
If the cellar is to be permanent, the walls may be laid of 
stone or brick. If the masonry wall is lined with hollow 
or lining brick,'^ more uniform conditions are secured. 
It is important that provision be made for ample drain- 
age, and also for ventilation without opening the main 
doors. This ventilation is usually secured by a little cupola 
or shaft near the center of the structure or by windows 
in the gables. A vestibule entrance is desirable if the 
climate is severe. It is preferable that the cellar have a 
natural earth bottom, provided the drainage, either natu- 
ral or artificial, is complete. 

A great difficulty with a permanent field or outside 
cellar is the danger of its holding so much moisture and 
being so " close " as to encourage the growth of fungi and 
thus engender decay. Investigations into the causes of 
the rotting of celery in storage have shown that the disease 
is associated largely with poor and damp houses. 

Pits, or field storage. 

The field cellar or pit is a temporary structure. A 
style much used in parts of the Northern States may be de- 
scribed as an example: On warm and well-drained land 
(preferably sand or gravel) an excavation is made one to 
two feet deep, usually fourteen to eighteen feet wide, and 
of the length required to hold the crop one has to store. 



452 



Marl'eting, Storing, Drying 



The sides or margins of the excavation are held hy one 
or two planks placed on edge and secured hy stakes driven 
into the ground. The pit is then covered with a gable 
roof made hy laying hoards from the margin to a ridge- 
pole. The ridge-pole stands three to five feet above the 




240. An outside cellar, or pit, for the storing of 
green vegetables, as celery. 




bottom of the pit 
and is held on 
stakes driven 
through the center 
of the pit length- 
wise. Usually it is 
necessary to sup- 
port the boards 
between the mar- 
gin and the ridge 

by another run or plate held on stakes driven midway 
between the side and the ridge. Boards about twelve feet 
long are now laid from the ground to the ridge-pole, mak- 
ing a continuous roof. Ordinarily these boards are lapped, 
and the upper run is nailed lightly to hold the roof in 
place. The boards are not nailed very securely, however, 
for it may be necessary to use the boards the following 



241.' Ventilating shaft, and structure of the gable. 



Outside Cellars 



453 




year, and the subsequent covering will hold them in place. 
At intervals of ten or twelve feet, two or three boards are 
left without nailing to allow of an entrance, and the place 
is marked by a stake 



driven into the ground. 
These pits or tempo- 
rary cellars are made 
late in autumn, and 
until severe freezing 
weather comes the pro- 
tection of boards is suf- 
ficient ; but as winter 242. interior of a good storage pit. 

approaches, straw, grass or other litter is thrown over 
the roof, and subsequently manure or earth is added. In 
pits of this character, that contain a large body of air, 

very uniform conditions 
are secured. In them 
celery, leek and brussels 
sprouts, and even cabbage, 
may be set compactly in 
rows. The plants often 
make a root-hold in the 
soil, and therefore do not 
shrivel and are not so 
likely to rot as those 
thrown in loose. 

Pits of this kind are 
very useful for the stor- 
In them the celery grows 
If, however, it is 




The sill and roof construction. 



ing of late or winter celery, 
somewhat, . and it blanches by spring 
desired to keep celery only a short time, and particularly 



454 



Marl'etifig, Storing^ Dnjing 



if the crop has been blanched in the field, another kind 
of strncture is usually more desirable. In that case, a 
house that has a httle artificial heat is usually better. 

Various paiierns of storage structures. 

To visualize the foregoing statements, pictures are here 
assembled of several forms and details of home-made or 
farm storage structures. 

The building may be a wooden structure over a pit, as 




244. Home-made storage cellar. 



in Fig, 240. with a ventilating vrindow in the gable. TJsu- 
all}- some kind of roof ventilation is provided, perhaps 
in the way of such shafts or chimneys as those in Fig. 
S41. Some of these houses are of excellent construction, 
as indicated in Figs. 241 and 242. They may be ceiled 
to keep them warm and prevent too rapid changes in tem- 
perature, and roof windows may be provided for light. If 



storage Structures 



455 



the side walls are brick, the structure may be something 
like that in Fig. 243. The air-space in the roof is to be 
noted. 

The structure may be wholly or mostly buried, either 
by being sunken or by having earth covered over it. Fig. 
244 is a well-miade outside cellar (James H. Beattie, 
Farmers' Bull. 879), with ventilation and drainage. De- 
tail for the interior of an outside cellar is given by James 




245. Detail of a partially buried cellar. 



L. Strahan, Cornell Extension Bull. No. 22, shown in 
Fig. 245. " The interior is arranged in a double row of 
bins each 8x8 feet with a 4-foot alley through the middle. 
At the alley corner of each bin is a 6 x 6-inch post built up 
of 3 pieces of 2 x 6-inch material. The center piece is 
cut 6 inches short to allow for a 2 x 6-inch stringer, or 
ceiling support, which runs longitudinally through the 
cellar along the top of the posts. On this 2 x 6-inch piece 
rest 2 X 4-inch joists spaced 2 feet and 6 inches on cen- 
ters, and these in turn support a ceiling of 1-inch un- 
matched boards. A 4-inch shoulder, 10 inches from the 



456 Marketing, Storing, Drying 



top, is constructed on the inside of the long walls to re- 
ceive the ends of the 2 x 4-inch joists. This allows a space 
of about 15 inches between the ceiling and the roof at the 
point where the roof joins the wall, which can be stuffed 
with old rags, carpet, or burlap as an added protection 
against frost. Ventilation inside the cellar is provided 
by means of a raised slatted floor and slatted bin divi- 
sions.'^ 

A simple pit is shown in Fig. 246 and described as 
follows (Cornell Eeading-Course for Farm Home, 113) : 
" A pit one or two feet deep is dug in a well-drained spot, 




246. A simple ventilated pit. 



and a foundation wall of stakes and boards, or, better, of 
concrete, is built around it. On this wall, rafters are 
erected for the support of roof boards. The roof is cov- 
ered with soil and sod, or with straw and a light covering 
of earth, or with manure. Such a pit will last several 
years, especially if a rot-resistant wood, as the so-called 
^ pecky ' cypress, is used. With the specific directions that 
are furnished b}^ cement manufacturers, concrete work is 
within the range of any handy man, and a permanent 
concrete cave or pit may be built with little expense and 
trouble. No matter what the form of construction, one 



storing and Burying 



457 



or two small ventilators should be provided at the top of 
the cave, and one at the bottom of the door. These should 
be arranged to open and close." 

The lurying of vegetables. 

Most root crops, as beets, carrots, potatoes, are kept over 
winter with ease by burying them in the field. It is weJl 
to choose a warm and well-drained place. The pit is cov- 
ered very lightly at first, and more covering added as the 
cold weather comes on. If the full covering is applied at 
first the products are likely to heat and decay sets in. Be 
sure that the beets and potatoes are not attacked by fun- 
gous diseases before they are put in the pit. 

It is customary to make a small circular or rectangular 
excavation six inches to a foot deep and from six to eight 
feet across. In this the roots are piled in a tall cone. 
Straw or salt-hay or rather dry litter is then thrown over 
the pile to protect from the early frosts. As the season 
advances, an inch or two of earth is thrown over the straw 
and finally, when winter threatens to close in, the pile is 
covered deep enough to give full protection. Usually ten 
to twelve inches of earth over the straw will be sufficient, 
the straw itself being four to six inches thick after it is 
wtII matted down. In severe climates the earth may then 
be covered with a foot or two of horse manure. Apples 
can be buried in this way with very good results, particu- 
larly the long-keeping varieties, as Eussets. 

The pit may be elongated to any distance required. It 
is well not to make it much wider than six or eight feet, 
else the vegetables are likely to heat and there may be too 
great pressure on the lowermost tubers. 



458 



2Iarl-eting, Storing, Drying 



An excellent modification of the long pit is the compart- 
ment-pit. This has narrow partitions of earth every four 
or five feet^ thus preventing the heating of the vegetables 
and also allowing one compartment to be emptied in winter 

without exposing an- 
other. A good one 
is shown in Fig. 247 
(from Cornell Eead- 
ing-Course ) . Usually 
these compartment- 
pits are sunk two or 
three feet in the earth 
and a partition of soil six to twelve inches is left between 
the excavations. Each pit is then filled until it is 
" rounded full and is covered as above described. It is 
often difficult to make these partitions hold their shape^ 
however, particularly in loose and sandy land. In such 
cases the vegetables may be heaped in several piles in a 
long pit and earth tramped in between the piles. 

"Whatever the style of pit, it is essential that the soil be 
naturally well drained, and a furrow or ditch should bo 
opened around the pit to carry off surface water. 

3. DRYING 

It is not the purpose of this book to discuss the preser- 
vation of vegetables; yet the importance of the subject 
has latterly become so great that the drying of vegetables 
for home use can hardly be passed over. The home can- 
ning of vegetables is better understood, and, moreover, a 
discussion of it would be too extensive for this place, and 
it is a culinary operation. 




247. CrLSs-section of a trench. 



The Drying of Vegetables 



459 



" Comparatively speaking, the evaporating plant has 
many advantages over the cannery/' writes J. S. Caldwell 
in his exhaustive bulletin on " The Evaporation of Fruits 
and Vegetables" (Bull. 148, Wash. Exp. Sta.). "The 
initial cost of building and equipment necessary to handle 
a given volume of material is much less, the machinery is 
less costly and depreciates much less rapidly. The em- 
ployment of a technically trained, high-salaried supervisor 
is not necessary.-'^ 

" It must not be forgotten," Dr. Caldwell continues, 
" that in supplying the actual necessities of life, fruits 
and vegetables are as indispensable as grains and meats, 
and that without them it is impossible for human beings 
to maintain continued normal health. But fruits and 
vegetables retain all their nutritive value and their health- 
preserving powers after having been subjected to drying, 
which eliminates all inedible portions and converts the 
material into non-perishable form while reducing its weight 
by three-fourths to seven-eighths." 

Only briefly can the subject of the drying of vegetables 
be opened here, and mostly by way of suggestion for the 
home-maker. " The nutritive value of food," writes Pearl 
MacDonald in Ext. Circ. 61, Pa. State Coll., "is prac- 
tically unchanged by drying. In addition to the difference 
in flavor produged by drying, there is usually a difference 
in color. Green shell peas and beans remain practically 
unchanged in color; but apples, for example, when pared 
and exposed to the air are changed to a darker color due 
to the action of the oxygen of the air upon certain of their 
elements. According to the laws of nature, this is the re- 
sult to be expected and everyone should recognize the fact. 



460 



Marl-eting, Storing, Dnjing 



Many factory-evaporated products are treated chemically 
to give them a lighter color, because the public demands 
a less highly-colored product. Such treatment, however, 
detracts from the natural color and flavor. * * * The 
amount of water in the dried fruits and vegetables is 
greatly reduced, which means that there is a greater con- 
centration of food elements in dried products. Pound for 
pound the nutritive value is greater in dried than in fresh 
food. When dried foods are prepared for the table, how- 
ever, the water lost by evaporation is replaced by soakinsr, 
so that the nutritive value of cooked dried material and 
of fresh material is virtually equal. 

" Xot all fruits and vegetables lend themselves to this 
method of preservation. * * * Of the vegetables, green 
shell peas, green shell beans (any of the bush and pole 
bean varieties such as are used for green shell beans), 
string beans, green shell lima beans, corn and pumpkin 
are the best to dry. 

" The reason for drying the green shell peas and beans, 
green limas and string beans is to supply a greater variety 
for the winter diet. The family may tire of having the 
mature peas and beans frequently. If there is, however, 
a supply of canned, green dried and mature dry peas 
and beans, and these are properly placed in the menu, 
there is little danger that this t^'pe of food will become 
monotonous." 

Various kinds of trays may be used for the drying of 
vegetables as for tlie more familiar drying of fruits. A 
serviceable home-made construction, for use either in the 
sun or on a stove is described (Pa. Circ. 61, from whicli 
Fig. 248 is adapted), as follows: 



Home Drying 



461 



" To make this drier use strips of wood about one inch 
wide and one-half inch thick (lath will answer very well). 
Cut these and the cross-pieces to which the strips are 
nailed to fit the oven in which they are to be used; 
or any desired length if they are not to be used in oven 




248. Home-made drier for vegetables. Tlie drier com- 
plete with wire-bottom tray on top, which may be taken 
off and used separately. Beneath the top is a slat tray 
(shown separately) that may be used instead. If the slat 
tray is used, the top wire-screen tray may be inverted 
over it for protection from flies and dust. 

drying. Around the top of the drier construct a frame 
of one-inch strips to prevent the material that is being 
dried from dropping out. To the bottom of the drier, nail 
wooden legs about four inches in length. This will raise 
the frame so as to permit a circulation of air under the 
drier. Wire screen or mosquito netting should be tacked 
around the sides of the frame to protect the food. 



462 



Marketing, Storing, Drying 



" Copper or other screen may be used in place of the 
slats. Copper screen is preferred because it will not cor- 
rode if the food material comes in direct contact with it, 
except of course foods that contain acid. Spreading 
cheesecloth over the screen will overcome trouble of this 
sort. The cover is constructed of one-inch strips of a 
size to fit the base, and is also screened. Several addi- 
tional covers may be made and placed one above the other 
in tiers, and thus a minimum of area be covered by the 
apparatus. 

" This type of drier may be used out of doors on a 
fairly level porch roof; a southern exposure is best. A 
tin roof is excellent for drying purposes. This type may 
also be put on top the stove. A piece of asbestos may be 
placed under the drier to protect the wood from the heat 
of the stove." 

A home-made dry-house is shown in Fig. 249, also from 
the Pennsylvania Circular on "The Drying of Fruits and 
Vegetables." The " house " opens front and back, with 
five trays each, making ten trays or removable shelves to 
hold the produce. The construction carries its own heat- 
ing facilities, in the nature of a fire-place beneath. Of 
course there are completer outfits manufactured for the 
purpose. 

The drying of vegetables received special impetus in 
the war time, and much was written on the subject. 
Farmers' Bulletin 841 gives detailed advice. Its prelim- 
inary statement is as follows : " Fruits and vegetables may 
be dried in the home by simple processes and stored for 
future use. Especially when canning is not feasible, or 
cans and jars are too expensive, drying offers a means of 



Rome Drying 



463 



saving large quantities of surplus prodncts Trhicli go to 
waste each year in gardens and fruit plots. Drying also 
affords a way of conserving portions of food which are too 
small for canning. 

" The drying may he done in the sun, over the kitchen 
stove or before an 
electric fan. Manu- 
facturers have placed 
driers on the market. 
Home-made driers are 
satisfactory. 

"A good hnnK- 
m a d e drier should 
have t h e following 
features: (1) It 
should be lights easy 
to operate, of simple 
construction, inexpen- 
sive, and, as nearly as 
possible, non-inflam- 
mable. (2) It should 
permit a free circu- 
lation of air, to allow 
the rapid removal of 
the air after it has 
passed over the vege- 
tables and absorbed -'^p-^ dry-house, 
moisture. (3j It should provide for protection of the 
food product against dust, insects, etc. (i) It should pro- 
tect the materials from being moistened by steam, smoke, 
rain, or dew while drvins:.^^ 




464 



Marketing^ Storing, Drying 



" Three main ways of drying are applicable in the home 
manufacture of dried fruits and vegetables/' according to 
Farmers' Bulletin 841, " namely, sun drying, drying by 
artificial heat, and drying by air blast. These, of course, 
may be combined. In general, most fruits or vegetables, 
to be dried quickly, must first be shredded or cut into 
slices, because many are too large to dry quickly or are 
covered with a skin, the purpose of which is to prevent 
drying out. AYhen freshly cut fruits or vegetables are to 
be dried by means of artificial heat, they should be ex- 
posed first to gentle heat and later to the higher tempera- 
tures. If the air applied at the outset is of too high a 
temperature, the cut surfaces of the sliced fruits or vege- 
tables become hard, or scorched, covering the juicy 
interior so that it will not dry out. Generally it is not de- 
sirable that the air temperature in drying should go above 
140° to 150° F., and it is better to keep it well below 
this point. Insects and insect eggs are killed by exposure 
to heat of this temperature. 

"When freshly cut fruits or vegetables are spread out 
they immediately begin to evaporate moisture into the air 
around them, and if in a closed box will very soon satu- 
rate the air with moisture. This will slow down the rate 
of drying and lead to the formation of molds. If a cur- 
rent of dry air is blown over them continually, the water 
in them will evaporate steadily until they- are dry and 
crisp. Certain products, especially raspberries, should not 
be dried hard, because if too much moisture is removed 
from them they will not resume their original form when 
soaked in water. On the other hand, the material must 
be dried sufficiently or it will not keep, but will mold. 



Yield of Dried Product 



465 



Too great stress cannot be laid upon this point. This 
does not mean that the product must be baked or scorched, 
but simply that it must be dried uniformly through and 
through. 

It will be found advisable also to ^ condition ' prac- 
tically all dried vegetables and fruits. This is best done 
in a small way by placing the material in boxes and pour- 
ing it from one box into another once a day for three 
or four days, so as to mix it thoroughly and give to the 
whole mass an even degree of moisture. If the material 
is found to be too moist, it should be returned to the dry- 
ing trays for a short drying." 

The yield of tlie produce in dried material is stated by 
E. L. Ivirkpatrick in Cornell Eeading-Course for the 
Farm, Lesson 132. The water content of various fresh 
fruits and vegetables and the amount of dried produce 
that one hundred pounds of the fresh fruit or vegetable 
will yield, are shown : 





Percentage of 
water in the 
produce 


Pounds dried prod- 
uct from one hun- 
dred pounds fresh 
produce 


Tomatoes 


. . . 94.3 


8.5 




. . . 94.0 


7.0 




. . . 92.0 


7.5 


Cabbage .... 


. . . 91.0 


8.0 


Carrots .... 


. . . 88. 


10.0 




. . . 87.0 


8.5 




. . . 86.0 


6.0 


Apples .... 


. . . 84.6 


15.0 


Potatoes .... 


. . . 78.3 


22.0 




. . . 75.4 


21.0 



CHAPTEE XX 



THE HOME GARDEN 

The home gardens of the country ought to be more 
important than the commercial gardens and the trucking 
areas. Perhaps the}^ are^ but as we have no statistics of 
them we are unable to compute their produce or to esti- 
mate their influence in the life of the people. If there 
are twentj-fiYe million families in the United States, there 
ought to be several million home gardens. The value of 
these gardens in the education and discipline of children 
and in the raising of supplies should exceed all estimate. 

The elements to be considered in the home garden are : 
(1) An enterprise within the means and labor supply of 
the family; (2) a sufficient product to supply the house- 
hold; (3) continuous succession-crops; (-i) ease and 
cheapness of cultivation; (5) maintenance of the produc- 
tivity of the land 5^ear after year. 

The quantity of product to be grown depends on the 
size of the family and its fondness for vegetables. An 
area 100 x 150 feet is generally sufficient to supply a family 
of five or six persons, not considering the winter supply of 
potatoes ; but the area must be well tilled and handled. 

The ease and efficiency of cultivation are much en- 
hanced if all the crops are in long rows, to allow of wheel- 

(466). 



Planning a Home Garden 



467 



tool tillage, either by horse or by man-power. The old 
practice of growing vegetables in beds usually entails more 
labor and expense than the crop is worth and it has had 
the effect of driving more than one boy from the garden. 
These beds always need weeding on Saturdays, holidays, 
circus days, and the Fourth of July. 

Even if the available area is only twenty feet wide, the 
rows should run lengthwise the plot and be far enough 
apart (one to two feet for small stuff) to allow of the 
use of the hand wheel-hoes, many of which are very 
efficient. If land is available for horse-tillage, none of the 
rows should be less than thirty inches apart, and for large- 
growing things, as late cabbage, four feet is better. If the 
rows are long, it may be necessary to grow two or three 
kinds of vegetables in the same row; and in this case it 
is important that vegetables requiring the same general 
treatment and similar length of season be grown together. 
A row containing parsnips and salsify, or parsnips, salsify 
and late carrots, affords a good combination; but a row 
containing parsnips, cabbage and lettuce would be a faulty 
combination. 

One part of the area should be set aside for all similar 
crops. For example, all root crops might be grown on 
one side of the plantation, all cabbage crops in the adjoin- 
ing space, all tomato and eggplant crops in the center, all 
corn and other tall things on the opposite side. Perennial 
crops, as asparagus and rhubarb, and gardening structures, 
as hotbeds and frames, should be on the border, where they 
will interfere least with the plowing and tilling. 

The best results in maintaining productiveness are to 
be secured when it is possible to practice rotation of crops. 



468 



Tlie Home Garden 



manures and tillage. Even in a small area, this rotation 
can be practised to a considerable extent. The area de- 
voted to root crops this year ma}^ be given to corn or 
melons next year. It is particularly important to rotate if 
diseases and insects become serious on any one crop; and 
in this case^ the greatest care should be taken to choose 
those crops, for the rotation^ on which the parasites cannot 
thrive. For example, the club-root of the cabbage and 
cauliflower works on turnips. Some insects cannot be 
starved out in a small area, and it is then necessary to 
cease growing the crop for a year or two. The cabbage 
maggot is an example. If this pest obtains a good foot- 
hold in the home garden, cabbages and cauliflowers may 
be discontinued until the insect disappears; and this is 
often a cheaper solution of the difficulty than to attempt 
to destroy the insect with the bisulfide of carbon treat- 
ment. If one lives on a farm, the cabbage patch may be 
placed on the farther part of the estate for a 3^ear or two. 
When the maggot has quit the area, the cabbage patch 
may be made again on the old ground. 

Of the home veo-etable-o-arden. Hunn writes as follows 
in the " Practical Garden-Book : 

" Make the soil deep, mellow and rich before the seeds 
are sown. Time and labor will be saved. Eake the sur- 
face frequently to keep down weeds and to prevent the 
soil from baking. Eadish seeds sown with celery or other 
slow-germinating seeds will come u]~) quickly, breaking the 
crust and marking the rows. About the borders of the 
vegetable-garden is a good place for fioAvers to be grown 
for the decoration of the house and to give to friends. 

" A home vegetable-garden for a family of six would 



Lay-out of a Home Garden 



469 



require, exclusive of potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150 
feet. Beginning at one side of the garden and running 
the rows the short way (having each row 100 feet long), 
sowings may be made, as soon as the ground is in condi- 
tion to work, of the following: 

Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify. . 

One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be potato 
or set onions, the remainder bla:ik-seed for summ^^r and fall use. 

Fifty feet of early beets, 50 feet of lettuce, with which 
radish may be sown to break the soil and be harvested before 
the lettuce needs the room. 

One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which 
should be from a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18 
inches to 2 feet apart. 

One hundred feet of early cauliflower; culture same as for 
cabbage. 

Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows : 
100 feet of extra early. 
100 feet of Intermediate. 
100 feet of late. 

100 feet of extra early, sown late. 
50 feet of dwarf varieties. 
If trellis or brush is to be avoided, frequent sowings of the 
dwarfs will maintain a supply. 

After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost 
has passed, the tender vegetables may be planted, as follows : 
Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and 
intermediate, and two rows late. 

Tomatoes, one row, plants 4 to 5 feet apart. 

One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties. 

Vines as follows : 

10 hills of cucumbers, 6x6 feet. 
20 hills of muskmelon, 6x6 feet. 

6 hills of early squash, 6x6 feet. 
10 hills of Hulfbard squash, 6x6 feet. 



470 



The Home Garden 



One hundred feet of okra. 

Twenty eggplants. 

Six large clumps of rhubarb. 

An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide. 

Late cabbage, cauliflower and celery are to occupy the space 
njade vacant by removing early crops of early and intermediate 
peas and string beans. 

A border on one side or end will bold all herbs, such as 
parsley, thyme, sage, hyssop, mints. 

Much of the satisfaction in the garden of one's own 
hands lies in the compact housing of garden tools and 
supplies, keeping all the outfit painted and repaired. The 
daily work will suggest many conveniences and aids to be 
made rainy days and odd times on the work-bench in the 
garden-house, for it is assumed that even the home gar- 
den will have its headquarters in a small neat structure 
built for the purpose or in a part of the barn, woodshed, 
garage or basement. 

The garden will be well laid out, according to a plan. 
All of it will express good workmanship — this is part of 
its educational value to children. There is also a whole- 
some promptitude about garden work. The place will be 
planned with due regard both for good appearance and 
economy of labor. " It improves the appearance of the 
garden greatly and makes the work easier if all crops are 
planted in straight rows,'' writes C. E. Durst, in Circ. 
198, 111. Exp. Sta. " For this purpose one should get into 
the habit of using a garden line. This should be stretched 
tightly and the rows made just to one side of it so that 
the line will not be moved and the rows made crooked as 
a result. For making deep drills for onion sets and peas. 



A City Man's Garden 



471 



the point of the hoe or a wheel hoe with plow attachment 
should be used. For shallow drills for small seeds, the tip 
of the hoe handle is especially good. This makes a nar- 
row drill which is easily weeded and cultivated. The 
secret of making perfectly straight rows is to take a firm 
grip of the hoe and make good brisk draws. For vege- 
tables planted in hills, the holes can be made quickly with 
the point of the hoe. AVhen several 
rows of the same width are to be 
planted, time can be saved by us- 
ing a home-made marker, as shown 
in Fig. 250. The rnnners can 
easily be changed for rows of 
different widths.'^ 

The home-gardener will find it 

^ 250. Hand-made marker. 

a great help to keep a simple diary 

of the operations, so that one year's work and rewards 
may be compared with those of another year. Even old 
hands at the business like to refresh themselves on dates 
for planting and to compare seasons and yields. A plan 
or diagram of the garden affords a good record. 

There will be a tight dry place for the keeping of seeds. 
It is great joy to try a few novelties every year, whether 
vegetables or other things. It is good schooling. The seeds 
themselves are interesting in their fascijiating shapes and 
markings, and in the ways they have of " coming up.'' 

The garden shown in Fig. 251 was a city back yard 
25 X 70 feet, near ISTew York City, described in Farmers' 
Bull. 818 : "It happened to be bounded on two sides by a 
board fence, and advantage was taken of this fact to plant 




472 



The Home Garden 



and train grape vines. Strawl^erry plants were set along- 
side the flagstone walks and currant bushes between the 
walks and the fence. In the space between the bushes and 
the strawberries low-growing vegetables, such as bush beans, 
peppers, eggplants, and the like, were set out. In a space 
about 12 feet wide between the walks, low-growing, quick- 
maturing varieties of early vegetables were planted in 
such a way that later-maturing varieties could be put out 
at proper intervals between them. The early plantings 
consisted of radishes, early beets, lettuce, carrots, and a 
few parsnips. The beets gave way later to a few late cal> 
bage plants. The sunniest portion of the yard was turned 
over to tomatoes, of which there were about a dozen plants 
trained to a single stem and set about 18 inches apart in 
each direction. Early and late peas were put out in the 
least sunny portions of the yard. Later, in the fall, 
spinach, kale and potato-onion sets were planted in order 
to provide a supply of green succulents for the winter and 
early spring.'^ 

A larger area, exclusively devoted to vegetables, is 
planned in Fig. 252, by H. C. Thompson, in Farmers' 
Bull. 934. " The size of the garden,'' the author says, 
'^'^ depends upon the number of persons to be supplied. 
One-fourth to one-half an acre is sufficient for an average 
family and should produce enough vegetables for use 
throughout the year. By close attention to the rotation of 
crops, the succession of crops, and interplanting, one- 
fourth of an acre may be made to supply a family of six. 
Where land is available, it is recommended that a suffi- 
cient area be set aside to allow part of the garden to be 
planted to a soil-improving crop each year." 



473 



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252. A home garden, to be tilled by hand. 



From Beginning to End 



475 



Here ends the vegetable-garclening book. As it begins 
with plants, so it ends with the home; thereby is the per- 
sonal and human interest of the book emphasized. The 
author enjoyed writing the book twenty years ago. Still 
more has he enjoyed re-writing it in his matnrer years, and 
he has lived the subject all over again. He has had many 
aids not available then, for now there are nnmerons 
workers. He might have quoted endlessly from them with 
profit, did not the limits of the book forbid. Temptation 
is strong to say something of the strange vegetables now 
before him on another continent, for this paragraph is 
writtm far from home; but these interesting subjects must 
be left for another occasion. The public has been kind to 
the old book; the author can ask nothing better for the 
new one. He has tried to make it sound, but cannot hope 
to have escaped errors : the reader must exercise his own 
judgTQent in the use of the statements and advice. The 
author does not expect to re-write the book again; but if 
subsequent editions are needed, certain changes may be 
made. ^ 



INDEX 



Atelmoschus esculentns, 327. 
acid phosphate, 382, 383. 
Actinomyces chromogenus, 203. 
adzuki bean, 241. 

listed, 10. 
Agariciis campestris, 3. 
Agromyza simplex, 22. 
Aizoacese, 4. 
alanga, 6. 
alexanders, 6. 

Aleyrodes vaporariorum, 435. 
Alismaceae, 7. 
Allium, citation, 16, 17. 
Allium Ampeloprasum, IGO, 

ascalonicuin, 159. 

Cepa, 1;jS. 

fistiilosum, 159. 

Porrum, 160. 

sativum, 159. 

Sclicenoprasum, 157. 

listed, 4. 

Scorodoprasum, 160. 

solaninum, 159. 

viviparum, 158. 
Allium.s, listed, 7. 
Alternaria solani, 203, 256. 
Amaranth, 4. 

edible, 58. 
Amaranthus, 4. 
Ammonium sulfate, 381, 383. 
Amorphophallus Konjac, 7. 
Anasa tristis, 286. 
Anethum graveolens, 11. 
angelica, 5. 
anise, 334. 

Annals of Horticulture, 3. 
Anomis erosa, 324. 
anthracnose of bean, 236. 
of lettuce, 102. 



Anthriscus Cerefolium, 5, 125, 
Aphis hrassicae, 71. 
cabbage, 71. 
gossypii, 287, 297, 324. 
pseudodrassicce, 71. 
rumicis, 238. 
spinach, 71, 
turnip, 71. 
Apium Celeri, 138. 
dulce, 138. 

graveolens, 5, 8, 138. 
Petroselinum, 138. 
rapaceum, 139. 
Apios tuherosa, 8. 
apple, balsam, 281. 
aracha, 8. 
Aracese, 7. 

Arachis Jiypogcea, 10. 
Araliacese, 5. 
Aralia cordata, 5. 

racemosa, 50. 
Archangelica officinalis, 5. 
Arctium Lappa, 9. 
Arwioracifl rusticana, 8, 185. 
army-worms, 430, 432. 
Arracacia xantliorrhiza, 8. 
arrow-head, 7. 
arrow-root, 7. 
arsenate of lead, 429. 

spray, 69. 
Artemisia, species, 7. 
Arthur (J. C.) cited, 209. 
artichoke, botany of, 41. 

Chinese or Japanese, 9. 
discussion of, 39. 
Jerusalem, 42, 43. 
listed, 6. 
Arum Family, 7. 
Ascochyta pisi, 230. 

(477) 



m 



Index 



asparagus bean, 10. 

beetle, 21. 

botany of, 31. 

discussion of, 19. 

listed, 4. 

miner, 22. 

officinalis, 31. 

pea, 10. 
Atriplex hortensis, 4, 59. 
Aiitofirapha hrassicw, 69, 102. 

falcigera, 128. 

Bacillus pTiytophthorus, 204. 

tracJieiphilus, 284. 
Bacterium campestre, 67. 

lachrymans, 285. 

phaseoli, 236. 
B<Bumerta Nasturtium, 121. 
balm, 6, 334. 
balsam apple, 11, 281. 

pear, 11, 281. 
bamboo, 3. 

banana, mentioned, 2. 
Barbarea, listed, 5. 

prcecox, 118. 

verna, 118. 
barbe-de-capuein, 114. 
Basella, 4. 
Basellaeese, 4. 
basic formula, 383. 
basil, 6. 

sweet, 334. 
Batatas edulis, 226. 
bean, adzuki Metcalfe, moth, 
mung, rice, urd, 241. 

broad, 242. 

garden, 243. 

horse, 243. 

kidney, 239, 251. 

lima, 247, 252. 

listed, 9, 10. 

multiflora, 246, 252. 

sieva, 247, 252. 

string, 243. 

tepary, 241, 253. 
beans, botany of, 250. 

discussion of, 235. 



Beattie, James H., cited, 455. 
Beattie, W. R., quoted, 325. 
beet, botany of, 169. 

discussion of, 164. 

leaf, 59. 

listed, 4, 8. 
Benincasa cerifera, 281. 

hispida, 11. 
Beta Cicla, 170. 

esculenta, 169. 

listed, 4, 8. 

maritima, 170. 

vulgaris, 170. 
binominal system, 16. 
))lack-leg of cabbage, 68. 

of potato, 204. 
black-rot of cabbage, 67. 
black salsify, 198. 
blanching celery, 132. 
blight of peas, 230. 

of potatoes, 202, 203. 
blister-beetles, 434. 
blood, dried, 383. 
Bluebell Family, 9. 
bordeaux mixture, 429. 
borecole, 79. 
Botrytis cinerea, 101. 

rot of lettuce, 101. 
bottom-rot of lettuce, 101. 
Boussingaultia, 4. 
Boyd, J. G., cited, 14. 
Brassica acephala, 94. 

a?6a, 61, 98. 

hullata, 94. 

campestris, 95. 

capitata, 94. 

caulorapa, 94. 

communis, 95. 

gemtnifera, 94. 

gongylodes, 94. 

japonica, 61, 97. 

Napohrassica, 95. 

Napus, 96. 

oleracea, 93. 

peliinensis, 91, 96. 

ramosa, 93. 

Rapa, 96. 



Index 



479 



rugosa, 61, 96. 

Rutabaga, 95. 

Sahauda, 94. 
Brassicas, listed, 5, 8. 
breeding of seeds, 403. 
Bremia lactucce, 102. 
broad bean, 242. 
broccoli, 83, 87. 

listed, 5. 
Bruchns ohtectus, 237. 

pisorum, 230. 
brussels sprouts, botany of, 94. 

discussion of, 81. 

listed, 5. 
Buckwheat Family, 4. 
bulb crops, 140. 
bunch onions, 144. 
Bunias orientalis, 5. 
burnet, 5. 

burying v^egetables, 457. 
bushel box, 441. 

cabbage aphis, 71. 

botany of, 67. 

bug, harlequin, 72. 

celery, 88. 

Chinese, 88. 

discussion of, 66, 93 

listed, 5. 

looper, 69, 102. 

root-maggot, 71. 

Shantung, 88. 

webworm, 70. 

worm, 69, 70. 
calabash gourd, 11. 
Calathea Alluia, 7. 
Caldwell, J. S., quoted, 459. 
Calendula officinalis, 6. 
Calonyction aculeatum, 6. 
Caltrop, water, 10. 
Campanulaceae, 9. 
Campanula raptinculus, 9. 
Canavalia ensiformis, 10. 
Cannacese, Canna Familj>, 7 
Canna edulis, 7. 
cantaloupe, 295, 306. 
cape gooseberry, 279. 



Capsella Bursa-pasteris, 5. 
Capsicum, 273. 

annuum, 276. 

cerasiforme, 278. 

conoides, 277. 

fasciculatum, 277. 

grossum, 277. 

species, 11. 
capucin, 8. 
caraway, 334. 

listed, 11. 
carbolic acid emulsion, 429. 
Cardaminum Nasturtium, 121. 
cardoon, listed, 6. 
Carpetweed Family, 4. 
carrot, botany of, 189. 

discussion of, 185. 

listed, 8. 

rust-fly, 127. 
Carum Carvi, 11. 
cassaba melon, 296, 307. 
cassabanana, 11. 
cassava, 8. 

Cassida Mvittata, 217. 

nigripes, 217. 

pallidula, 268. 
catjang, 10. 
catnip, 6, 334. 
cauliflower, botany of, 94. 

discussion of, 83. 

listed, 5. 
cayenne pepper, 11, 275. 
celeriac, 139, 193. 

listed, 8. 
celery, botany of, 138. 

cabbage, 88. 

discussion of, 126. 

listed, 5. 

looper, 128. ^ 
cellar, outside, 450. 

storage, 450. 
Ceratoma trifurcata, 237. 
Cercospora apii, 127. 

heticola, 164. 

capcici, 274. 
Cerefolium Cerefolium, 125. 



480 



Index 



Cli(ErophyUum hiilhosum, 8, 194. 

sativum, 125. 
Chcptocnema confins, 218. 
Chard, discussion of, 59. 
cliayote, 11, 281. 
Chelyumorpha argus, 217. 
Chenopodiacese, 4, 8, 9. 
Chenopodiums, listed, 4. 
chervil, listed, 5. 

salad, 124. 

tuberous, 194 ; listed, 8. 
chickling vetch, 10. 
chick-pea, 10. 
chicory, botany of, 115. 

discussion of, 112. 

listed, 6, 9. 
chilli, 274. 

listed, 11. 
Chinese cabbage, 88. 
chive, 156, 157. 

listed, 4. 
chorogi, 9. 

Christmas melon, 296. 
christophine, 11, 281. 
chrysanthemum, listed, 6. 
chufa, 7. 
ciboule, 156, 159. 
Cicer arietinum, 10. 
Cichorium divaricatum, 115. 

Endivia, 115. 

Intytus, 115. 

pnmilum, 115. 

species, 6. 
citron, 311. 

Citrttllns Colocpnthis, 310. 

vulgaris, 310. 
oive, 156, 157. 
Cladosporium fulvum, 256. 
clary, 6, 334. 
cloth for frames, 353. 
clubroot, 67. 
cluster bean, 10. 
co-ba, 3. 

Cochlearia Armor acia, 185. 

officinalis, 5. 
coldframes, 342. 
cole crops, 66, 91. 

plants, botany of, 91. 



collards, 79, 81, 94. 
Co I le to trick u m lagenariu m, 
296. 

lindemufhinnttm, 236. 
Colocasia, species, 7. 
commercial fertilizers. 380. 
companion-cropping, 417. 
Compositse, 6, 9. 
composting, 376. 
ConvolvulacetP. 6. 9. 
Convolvulus Batatas, 226. 
Coptocycla hicolor, 217. 

signifera, 217. 
Corbett L. C. cited, 14. 

quoted. 77. 
Corchorus olitorius, 5. 
coriander, 334. 

listed, 11. 
Coriaudium sativum, 11. 
corn borer. 317. 
corn-salad, 121, 122. 

listed, 6. 
corn, sweet, 316, 
corrosive sublimate, 430. 
cos lettuce, 107. 
costmary, 6, 334. 
cost of seeds, 409. 
covers for hotbeds, 354, 
cowpea. 10, 241. 
Cramhe maritima, 5, 46. 
Craniolarxa annua, 9. 
Creole scorzonera, 9. 
cress, botany of, 118. 

discussion of, 116. 

listed, 5. 

para, 7. 
Crioceris asparagi, 21. 
Crithmum maritimum, 6. 
Crocus sativus, 4. 
Crosby, C. R., cited, 18. 
Crowfoot Family, 9. 
Cruciferse, 5, 8, 9. 
CryptotcFnia canadensis, 6. 
cucumber beetle, 285. 

botany of, 305. 

discussion of, 284. 
cucumbers, listed, 11. 



Index 



481 



Cucnmis Anauria, 290, 309. 

Cliito, 309. 

Dudaim, 308. 

flexuosus, 308. 

Melo, 306. 

odoratissimus, 308. 

sativus, 305. 

species, 11. 
Cucurbitacese, 11. 
Cucurtita Citrullus, 310. 

Lagenaria, 280. 

maxima, 304, 313. 

moschata, 304, 314. 

ovifera, 313. 

Pepo, 303, 312. 

species, 11. 
Cucurbits, chapter on, 280. 
culcas, 7. 

culinary herbs, 331. 
cumin, 11. 

Cximinum Cyminnm, 11. 
cutworms, 430, 431, 432. 
Cyamopsis psoraloides, 10. 
Cyclanthera pedata, 11. 
CyJas formicarius, 217. 
cymling, 313. 
Cynara Cardunculns, 42. 

Scolymiis, 41. 
Cyperus esculenUts, 7. 
Cyphomandra tetacea, 11, 254. 

dandelion, discussion of, 63. 

listed, 7. 
Daitcvs Carota, 8, 189. 
Day, Plarry A., 2. 
De Baun, R. W., quoted, 77, 137, 
219. 

Depresaria heracliana, 128, 190. 
Diahrotica duodecimpunctata, 
291. 

vittata, 285, 291. 
diamond-back moth, 69. 
Diaphania hyalinata, 292. 

nitidnUs, 287. 
dibbers, 420. 
dill, 334. 

listed, 11. 



Bioplodia sp., 296. 

Dioscoreaceiie, 8. 

Dioscorea, species, 8. 

diseases of asparagus, 21 ; bean, 
236 ; beet, 164 ; brussels 
sprouts, 82 ; cabbage, 66 ; car- 
rot, 186 ; cauliflower, 83 ; cel- 
ery, 127 ; corn, sweet, 316 ; 
cucumber, 284 ; eggplant, 267 ; 
kohlrabi, 87 ; lettuce, 101 ; 
melon, 291 ; onion, 141 ; pea, 
230 ; pepper, 274 ; potato, 202 ; 
pumpkin, 302 ; rutabaga, 177 ; 
spinach, 52 ; squash, 302 ; 
sweet corn, 316 ; sweet potato, 
217 ; tomato, 255 ; turnip, 177 ; 
watermelon, 296. 

dish-cloth gourd, 281. 

dock, discussion of, 48. 

docks, listed, 4. 

DolicJios hiflorus, 10. 
Lahlah, 10. 

double-cropping, 414. 

drainage, 369. 

dried blood, 383. 

drop of lettuce, 101. 

drying vegetables, 458. 

dudaim, listed, 11. 
melon, 308. 

Durst, C. E., quoted, 470. 

Dye, H. W., cited, 18. 

Earle, F. S., quoted, 261, 353. 

eel-worm, 436. 

eggplant, botany of, 272. 

discussion of, 267. 
Egyptian onion, 144. 
elecampane, 9. 
Eleocharis dulcis, 7. 
Empoasca mali, 205. 
endive, botany of, 114. 

discussion of, 109. 

listed, 6. 
epigeal germination, 229. 
Epilacfina corrupta, 237. 
Epitrix cucifmeris, 207. 

fuscula, 268. 



482 



Index 



Eruca sativa, 5. 
Euphoribiacese, 8. 
Euphoria inda, 317. 
European corn borer, 317. 
Euschistvs cuscliiatoidcs, 318. 

variolarius, 318. 
evaporated vegetables, 458. 
Evening Primrose Family, 8. 
Evergestis rimosalis, 70. 

straminali, 70. 

Faba vulgaris, 250. 
Fagaceae, 3. 
fall sown plants, 363. 
family, supply for, 469. 
Fedia Cornucopice, 6. 
fennel, 5, 334. 

flower, 9. 
fertilizing the land, 377. 
fetticus, 6. 
field storage, 451. 
flats for seed-testing, 399. 

for transplanting, 423. 
flea-beetle of eggplant, 268. 

potato, 207. 

sweet potato, 218. 
flea-beetles, general account, 435. 
flue-heated hotbeds, 351. 
Fceniculum vulgare, 5. 
forcing hills, 342, 343. 
formaldehyde, 430. 
frame, defined, 336. 
frame, estimate, 338. 

making, 338. 

management, 358. 
fumigation, 429. 
fungi, general discussion, 425. 
fungicides, 428, 429. 
Fusarium iatatis, 217. 

congludinans, 68. 

Jiyperoxysporum, 217 

niveum, 296. 

oxysporium, 204. 

sp., 230, 236. 

garbanzo, 10. 

garden huckleberry, 11, 255. 
webworm, 70. 



Gargaphia solani, 268. 
garlic, 155, 159. 

listed, 7. 
gesse, 10. 

gherkin, 284, 290, 309. 
ginger, 7. 
Family, 7. 
Ginseng Family, 5, 
girasole, botany of, 44, 

discussion of, 42. 

listed, 9. 
glass, 335. 

substitutes for, 353. 
Glycine Soja, 10, 241. 
goa bean, 8, 10. 
gobo, 9. 
goober, 10. 
Good King Henry, 4. 
gooseberry, cape, 279. 
goosefoot, 4. 

Family, 4, 8, 9. 
gourd, 280, 281, 313. 

Family, 11. 
gourds, listed, 11. 
grading, 441. 
gram, Madras, 10. 
Gramineae, 3, 9. 
Grass Family, 3, 9. 
grasshoppers, 433. 
gray mold of lettuce, 101. 
greenhouse white-fly, 435. 
greens, defined, 99. 

discussion of, 51, 58. 
Green, S. N,, quoted. 111. 
ground cherry, 278. 
groundnut, 8. 
ground-pea, 10. 
growing of seeds, 402, 405. 
grubs, white, 433. 
guar, 10. 

gumbo, 10, 323, 327. 

Hale J. H., cited, 14. 
half-hardy, 410. 
Halsted, B. D., cited, 280. 
hand-box, 345. 
hardening-off, 362. 
hardy plants, 410. 



Index 



483 



haricot, 239. 

harlequin cabbage bug, 72. 
harrows, 394. 

Hawaiian beet webworm, 165. 
heating hotbeds, 346. 
Helianthus annuus, 44. 

tuberosus, 9, 44. 
Heliothis obsoleta, 317, 324, 
Heliothrips fasciatus, 238. 
helebore, 429. 
Hellula undalis, 70. 
lierbage vegetables, 3. 
herabrium specimens, 15. 
herbs, culinary, 331. 
Heterodera radicicola, 436. 
Hibiscus esculentus, 10, 327. 

Sabdariffa, 5. 
Hill, R. G., cited, 219. 
hoe, 395. 

home garden, chapter on, 466. 
hop, listed, 4 
horehound, 6, 334. 
horse bean, 243. 
horse-radish, botany of, 184. 

discussion of, 181. 

listed, 8. 
hotbeds, 346. 
huckleberry, garden, 255. 
Humnlus Liipiilus, 4. 
humus, discussion of, 375. 
husk tomato, 278, 279. 

listed, 11. 
hyacinth bean, 10. 
liydropyrum, 3. 
Hymenia fascialis, 165. 

perspectalis, 165. 
hypogeal germination, 229. 
hyssop, 6, 334. 
Hyssopus officinalis, 6. 

ice-plant, 4. 

implements, discussion of, 388, 
392. 

impurities in seeds, 398. 
Indian cress, 5. 
innala, 9. 

insecticides, 428, 429. 



insects, general discussion, 425 ; 
artichoke, 39 ; asparagus, 21 ; 
bean, 237 ; beet, 164 ; brussels 
sprouts, 82 ; cabbage, 69 ; car- 
rot, 186 ; cauliflower, 83 ; celery, 
127 ; corn, sweet, 317 ; cucum- 
ber, 285 ; egg-plant, 268 ; gumbo, 
324 ; horse-radish, 181 ; kale, 
79 ; kohlrabi, 87 ; lettuce, 102 ; 
melon, 291 ; okra, 324 ; onion, 
142 ; parsnip, 190 ; pea, 230 ; 
pepper, 274 ; potato, 204 ; pump- 
kin, 302 ; radish, 171 ; rhubarb, 
33 ; rutabaga, 177 ; spinach, 53 ; 
squash, 302 ; sweet corn, 317 ; 
sweet potato, 217 ; tomato, 256 ; 
turnip, 177 ; water-cress, 119 ; 
watermelon, 296. 

inter-cropping, 414. 

Inula Helenium, 9. 

Ipomcea Batatas, 9, 226. 
reptans, 6. 

Iris Family, Iridaceae, 4. 

irrigation, discussion of, 384. 

jack-bean, 10. 
Juglandaceae, 3. 
jute, edible, 5. 

kale, botany of, 93. 

discussion of, 79. 

listed, 5. 
kandela, 10. 
kan-kun, 6. 

kerosene emulsion, 429. 
Kerstingiella geocarpa, 10. 
Kirkpatrick, E. L., quoted, 465. 
kitchen herbs, 332. 
kohlrabi, botany of, 94. 

discussion of, 87. 

listed, 5. 
koniakum, 7. 
konjac, 7. 
kudzu, 8. 

Labiatse, 6, 9. 
laboratory work, 15. 



484 



Index 



Lactuca angustana, 108. 

capitata, 108. 

longifolia, 108. 

romana, 108. 

sativa, 6, 107. 

Scariola, 108. 
Lagenaria cucantha, 11, 280. 
lamb's quarter, edible, 58. 
lamb's quarters, 4. 
land, treatment of, 3G5. 
Laspeyresia nigricnna, 231. 
Lathyrus sativus, 10. 
Latin names, 18, 
Lavandula, species, 6. 
lavender, 6, 334. 
lead, arsenate of, 429. 
leaf-beet, discussion of, 59. 
leaf-spot of beet, 164. 
leek, 154, 160. 

listed, 7. 
Leguminosse, 8, 9. 
leguminous plants and nitr 

375. 

Lema trilneata, 205. 
Lens esciilenta, 10. 
lentil, 10. 

Leonard, M. D., cited, 18. 
Lepidium sativum, 5, 118. 
Leptinotarsa decemlineata, 

256, 268. 
lettuce, botany of, 107. 

discussion of, 100. 

listed, 6. 
Levisticxim officinale, 5. 
Ligyrus gibtosns, 186. 
Lilium, species, 7. 
Lily Family, Liliacese, 4, 7. 
lima bean, 247, 252. 

listed, 10. 
lime-sulfur, 429, 430. 
Linden Family, 5. 
Linnaeus, cited, 16. 
Lipusa multiflora, 252. 
Lloyd, J. W., cited, 14. 
longevity of seeds, 401. 
Lotus Tetragonolohus, 10, 
lovage, 334. 

listed, 5. 



Loxostege sticticalis, 165. 

similalis, 70. 
Luffa acutangula, 281. 

cylindrica, 281. 

species, 11. 
Lycopersicon cerasiforme, 266. 

escxilentum, 265. 

pimpineUifoIium, 267. 

pyriforme, 267. 

species, 11. 

tuTierosum, 215. 
.Lygtis pratensis, 128. 

]MacDonald, Pearl, quoted, 459. 
Macrosiphnm , pisi, 231. 

solanifolii, 205, 257, 269. 
]Madeira-vine Family, 4. 
^Madras gram, 10. 
maggot, onion, 143. 
maize, listed, 9. 

sweet, 316, 322. 
malanga, 7. 
:\Iallow Family, 5, 10. 

jew's, 5. 
]\Lalvaceae, 5, 10. 
Mamestra picta, 71. 
Mancaselhis tracTiyurus, 119. 
mnngel, listed, 8. 
mango melon, 309. 
Manihot ntUissima, 8. 
manure for hotbeds, 346, 348. 
Maranta anindinacea, 7. 
marigold, pot, 6. 
marjoram, 6, 334. 

sweet, 334. 
market-gardening, 14. 
marketing, 439. 
Marru'bium vulgare, 6. 
Marssonia panattoniana, 102. 
IMartynia. 11, 327, 329. 

Jiissieui, 329. 

loiiisiana, 329. 

proTioscidea, 329. 
MartyniaceEP, 9, 11. 
matting for hotbeds. 355. 
McClintock, T. A., cited, 53. 
McKay, quoted, 213. 
Melissa officinalis, 6. 



Index 



485 



Melittia satyriniformis, 286. 

raelocoton, 11. 

melon aphis, 287, 297. 

botany of, 306. 

discussion of, 291. 

Family, 11. 
melons, handling in pots, 357, 423. 

listed, 11. 
Mentha, species, 6. 
mercury, listed, 4. 
Mesembryanthenium, 4. 
Metcalfe bean, 241. 

listed, 10. 
mildew of lettuce, 102. 

of onion, 142. 
millipedes, 436. 
Milward, J. G., cited, 215. 
Mint Family, 6, 9. 
mints, listed, 6. 
miscible oils, 429. 
mitsuba, 6. 

Momordica Balsamina, 281. 

Charantia, 281. 

species, 11. 
Montia perfoliata, 4, 63. 
moonflower, 6. 
Moracese, 4. 
morele, 11, 254. 
Morning-glory Family, 6, 9. 
moth bean, 241. 

listed, 10. 
Mo-yii, 7. 
mucklands, 366. 
mugwort, 7. 
Mulberry Family, 4. 
multiplier onion, 144, 
mung bean, 241. 

listed, 10. 
Munn, M. T., cited, 153. 
Murgantia histriotiica, 72, 181. 
mushroom, listed, 3. 
mustard, botany of, 61. 

discussion of, 60. 

Family, 5, 8. 
mustards, listed, 5, 8. 
muskmelon, 292. 
myrrh, 5. 



Myrrhis odor at a, 5. 
Myrtacea?, 3. 

Myzus persicce, 53, 71, 128, 171, 
181, 269, 324. 

Nasturtium Armoracia, 185. 

officinale, 120. 
negro bug, 128. 
Nelum'bo nucifera, 8. 
nematode, 436. 
Nepeta Cntaria, 6. 
Ness, H., quoted, 348, 352, 353. 
New Zealand spinach, 4, 51. 
Nigella sativa, 9. 
nightshade, 254. 

Family, 9, 11. 
nitrate of soda, 381, 382, 383. 
nitrogen and egumes, 375. 
nomenclature, 16. 
Nymphseacese, 8. 

Ocimum, species, 6. 
(Enothera Mennis, 8. 
Ogdoconta cinereola, 238. 
oils, miscible, 429. 
oka, 8, 10. 

botany of, 327. 

discussion of, 323. 
olerarium, 2. 
olericulture, defined, 1, 
olery, 2. 
olluco, 8. 
Onagraceae, 8, 10. 
onion, botany of, 156. 

discussion of, 141. 

Egyptian, 144. 

listed, 7. 

mildew, 142. 

multiplier, 144. 

potato, 144. 

smut, 141. 

top, 144. 

tree, 144. 

Welsh, 155. 
orach, 4. 

discussion of, 59. 
Origanum, species, 6. 



486 



Index 



outside cellar, 450. 
Oxalidacese, 8. 
Oxalis crenata, 8, 
oyster plant, listed, 9. 

Paehyrhizus, species, 8, 10. 
Pachyzancla bipiinctaUs, 165. 
packages, 441, 445, 448. 
packing, 441, 443. 
Palmacese, 3. 
Papaipenia nitela, 206. 
Papilio polyxenes, 127. 
para cress, 7. 
paris green, 429. 
parsley, 123, 124. 

Family, 5, 8, 11. 

listed, 5. 
parsnip, botany of, 192. 

discussion of, 190. 

listed, 8. 
Pastinaca sativa, 8, 192. 
pea, botany of, 234. 

discussion of, 229. 

Family, 8, 9. 

listed, 10. 
peanut, 10. 
pear, balsam, 281. 
peas and beans, chapter on, 228. 
Pegomyia hyoscyami, 53, 164. 
pennyroyal, 6, 334. 
pepino, 11, 255. 

de comer, 11. 
peppermint, 6, 334, 
pepper, botany of, 275. 

discussion of, 273. 

red, listed, 11. 
perennial crops, 19. 
Peronospoi^a sclileideniana, 142. 
Petroselinum liortense, 5, 124. 

sativum, 124. 
pe-tsai, botany of, 96. 

discussion of, 88. 

listed, 5. 
Phaseolus aciitifoUus, 241, 253. 

lunatus, 241, 247, 252. 

macrocarpus, 252. 

Metcalfei, 241. 



muUiflorus, 240, 252, 

nanus, 252. 

retusus, 241. 

species, 9, 10. 

vulgaris, 239, 251. 
Phlegethontius qumquemaculata, 
256. 

sexta, 256. 
Plioma lingam, 68. 
Phomopsis vexans, 268. 
Phorhia hrassicce, 71, 171. 

ceparum, 143. 

fusciceps, 239. 
phosphate, acid, 382, 383. 

rock, 382. 
Phthorimwa operculella, 206, 
Phyllostachys puhescens, 3. 
Phyllotreta armoracice, 181. 
Phy sails peruviana, 279. 

pudescens, 279. 

species, 11. 
Phytolacca, 4. 

Phytophthora infestans, 202, 
pickle worm, 287. 
Picridium vulgare, 9. 
pie-plant, discussion of, 32, 
pigweed, 4. 

edible, 58. 
pimiento, 275. 
pipe-heated hotbeds, 350. 
Piper nigrum, 274. 
Pisum arvense, 235. 

humile, 235. 

macrocarpon, 235. 

saccharatum, 235, 

sativum, 10, 234. 
pits for storage, 451, 456. 
Plasmodiophora hrassicce, 67. 
Plasmopora ciihensis, 285. 
Plathypena scadra, 239. 
Plectranthus tiiberosus, 9. 
plow, discussion of,' 392. 
Plutella maculipennis, 69. 
Pokeweed Family, 4. 
Polygonacese, 4. 
Pontia rapce, 69. 
Portulacacese, 4. 



Index 



487 



Portulaca oleracea, 4, 62, 63. 
potash, sulfate, 383. 
potato beetle, 204. 

botany of, 215. 

crops, chapter on, 201. 

discussion of, 202. 

listed, 9. 
potherb, defined, 99. 
pot marigold, 6. 

pots for transplanting, 357, 422. 
power, list of, 391. 
Principles of Fruit-Growing, 3. 
Proboscidea louisiana, 11, 329. 
Psila rosce, 127, 186. 
Psophocarpus tetragonolohus, 8, 
10. 

Puccinia asparagi, 21. 
Pueraria hirsuta, 8. 
pulse crops, 228. 

Family, 8, 9. 
pumpkin, botany of, 311. 

discussion of, 301. 
pumpkins, listed, 11. 
purslane, edible, 61. 

listed, 4. 

winter, 63. 
pusley, edible, 61. 
Pyrausta nubilalis, 317. 
Pythium, sp., 230. 

quantity of seeds, 410. 
quinoa, 4, 9. 

Badicula Armoracia, 185. 

IS! asUirtiuin-aquaticum, 121. 
radish, botany of, 175. 

discussion of, 170. 

listed, 8. 

rat-tkiled, listed, 9. 
rag-doll tester, 401. 
rampion, 9. 
Ranunculacese, 9. 
Raphanufi caudatus, 176. 

sativus, 175. 

species, 8, 9. 
red pepper, 274. 

listed, 11. 



red-spider, 269, 434. 
resting land, 377. 
Rheum hybridum, 38. 

Rhaponticum, 4, 37. 
Rhizoctonia solani, 101, 203. 
rhubarb, botany of, 37. 

discussion of, 32. 

forwarding, 344. 

listed, 4. 
rice bean, 241. 

listed, 10. 
ridging, 373. 
rocambole, listed, 7. 
rocket-salad, 5. 
rock phosphate, 382. 
Rogers, Stanley S., quoted, 445. 
rollers, 394. 
romaine, 107. 

root crops, chapter on, 161. 
root-knot, 436. 
root-maggot, cabbage, 71. 
Roripa Armoracia, 185. 
listed, 5. 

Nasticrtiiim-aquaticum, 119, 
121. 
Rosaceje, 5. 
roselle, 5. 
rosemary, 6, 334. 
Rosmarinus officinalis, 6. 
rotation, discussion of, 376. 
Rumex Acetosa, 49. 

dentatus, 49. 

Patientia, 48. 

scutalus, 49. 

species, listed, 4. 
rust, aparagus, 21. 
rutabaga, botany of, 95, 96. 

discussion of, 179. 

listed, 8. 
Rutacese, 3. 

saffron, 4. 
sage, 6, 334. 
Sagittaria sagittifolia, 7. 
salad chervil, 124. 

crops, 99. 

defined, 99. 



488 



Index 



salsify, 196. 197. 

black, 198. 

listed, 9. 

Spanish, 198. 
Salvia officinalis and 8. Selarea, 
6. 

samphire, 6. 
Sanguisorta minor, 5. 
sash, defined, 336. 
Satureia, species, 6. 
savory, 6. 

summer, 334. 

winter, 334. 
scab of potatoes, 203, 204. 
scandigie, 420. 
Scandix CerefoUum, 125. 
Sclerotinia Ulertiana, 101, 127, 

186. 
scoke, 4. 

Scolymus Jiispanicus, 9, 199. 
scorzonera, Creole, 9. 

hlspanica, 198. 

li.?ted, 9. 
scurvy-grass, 5. 
sea-kale, botany of, 46. 

discussion of, 45. 
Sechium edule, 11, 281. 
seedage, 397. 

seed-bed. discussion of, 411. 
seed-breeding, 403. 
seed-growing. 402, 405. 
seed-sowing, 407, 408. 
seed-testing, 397. 
seeds, discussion of, 397. 

in hotbeds. 356. 
Septoria h/copersica, 255. 

petroselini, 127. 

pisi, 230. 
serpent melon, 308. 
sets, onion, 144. 
shallot, 156, 159. 

listed, 7. 
Shantung cabbage, 89. 
shepherd's purse, 5, 58. 
Sicana odorifera, 11. 
sieva bean. 247, 252. 
simlin, 313. 



Sinapis alha, 98. 

japonica, 97. 

nigra, 97. 

peJ:inensis, 96. 

rugosa, 97. 
singhara nut, 10. 
Sisy}7ibrium yasturtium - aquati- 

cum, 119, 121. 
Sium Sisarum, 8, 195. 
skirret, 195. 

listed, 8. 
slugs, 437. 

S}ni7ithuru8 horfensis, 288, 291. 
Smith, L. B.. cited, 53. 
smut of onion, 141. 
Smyrnium Olustrum, 6. 
snake gourd, 11. 
soil, sterilizing, 413. 
Solanaceae, 9, 11. 

solanaceous fruits, chapter on, 254. 
Solanum esculentum, 272. 

Lycopersicum, 265. 

Melongena, 272. 

inuricatum, 11, 255. 

nigrum, 11, 254. 

serpentinum, 273. 

tuberosum, 9, 215. 
sorrel, discussion of, 48. 

listed. 4. 
southernwood, 7. 
sowbug. water-cress, 119. 
sowing in hotbeds, 356. 

of seeds, 407, 408. 
soybean. 10. 241. 
Spanish salsify, 198. 
spearmint. 6. 334. 
Species Plantarum. 16. 
Spl(Frone?na fimtriatum, 217. 
Spilanthes oleracea, 7. 
spinach aphis, 53, 71. 

botany of, 57. 

discussion of, 52. 

listed, 4. 

New Zealand, 51. 
Spinacia glabra, 58. 
inermis, 58. 
oleracea, 57. 
spinosa, 57. 



Index 



489 



sponge, vegetable, 281. 
Spongospora siiiterranea, 204. 
spraying outfit, 396. 
sprouting tests, 400. 
Spurge Famil5^ 8. 
Squash, botany of, 311. 
bug, 286. 

discussion of, 301. 

-vine borer, 286. 
squashes, listed, 11. 
Stachys Sietoldn, 9. 
Starnes, quoted, 299. 
steam-heated hotbeds, 350. 
sterilizing soil, 413. 
stink-bug, 318. 

Stizolobium, species, 10, 241. 
storage, field, 451. 

of cabbage, 75. 

of potatoes, 210. 

of sweet potatoes, 222. 

rot of celery, 127. 
storing, 447, 454. 
Strahan, James L., quoted, 455. 
strawberry, mentioned, 2. 

tomato, 278. 
string bean, 243. 
striped cucumber beetle, 285. 
Stuart, William, cited, 212. 
Sturtevant, E. L., 1, 12. 
sub-irrigation, 387. 
sub-soiling, 373. 
substitutes for glass, 353. 
succession-cropping, 414. 
succory, 113. 
sugar-beet webworm, 165. 
sugar corn, 316. 
sulfate of ammonia, 381, 383. 

of potash, 383. 
summer savory, 334. 
Sunflower Family, 6, 9. 
superphosphate, 384. 
sweet basil, 334. 

cicely, 5. 
sweet corn, botany of, 322. 

discussion of, 316. 

listed, 9. 
sweet herbs, 331. 
sweet marjoram, 334. 



sweet potato, botany of, 226. 

discussion of, 216. 

listed, 9. 
Synchytrium endohiotica, 203. 

Tanacetum vulgare, 7. 
tanier, 7. 
tansy, 7. 

Taraxacum officinale, 7, 65. 
tarnished plant-bug, 128. 
taro, 7. 

tarragon, 7, 334. 
tender plants, 410. 
tepary bean, 241, 253. 

listed, 10. 
testing seeds, 397. 
Tetragonia expansa, 4, 51. 
TetranycJius telarius, 269, 434. 
Thompson, H. C, grading sweet 
potatoes, 446. 

on asparagus, 25. 

on home garden, 474. 

on sweet potatoes, 223. 
thousand-legged worms, 436. 
thrips, bean, 238. 

on onion, 142. 
Thrips tahaci, 142. 
thyme, 6, 334. 
Thymus, species, 6. 
Thyreocoris pulicarius, 128. 
Tiliaceje, 5. 

tillage, discussion of, 371. 

tools, 390. 
tip-burn of lettuce, 102. 
tobacco, 429. 
tomato, botany of, 264. 

discussion of, 255. 

husk, 278, 279. 

listed, 11. 

strawberry, 278. 

tree, 254. 
tools, discussion of, 388. 
topee-tamboo, 7. 
topinambour, white, 7. 
Tragopogon porrifolius, 9, 197, 
transplanting, discussion of, 418. 
Trapacete, 10. 
Trapa, species, 10. 



490 



Index 



tree tomato, 254. 
trenching, 373. 
Trichoharis trinotata, 206. 
Trichosanthes Anguina, 11. 
Tropteolum Family, 5, 8. 
trucking, defined, 14. 
tuber moth, 206. 
turnip aphis, 71. 

botany of, 95, 96. 

discussion of, 177. 

listed, 8. 

udo, discussion of, 49. 

listed, 5. 
Vllucus tuherosus, 8. 
TJmbelliferse, 5, 8, 11. 
underdrainage, 369. 
unicoi-n plant, 11, 329. 
Uranotes melinus, 324. 
urd bean, 241. 

listed, 10. 
Vrocystis cepuhc, 141. 

Valerianacese, Valerian Family, 6. 
T alerianeUa Locnsta, 122. 

olitoria, 122. 

species, 6. 
vandzon, 10. 
vegeculture, 2. 

vegetable gardening, defined, 1. 

marroAV, listed, 11. 

oyster, listed, 9. 

sponge, 281. 
vegeti culture, 2. 
vehicles, 391. 
ventilating frames, 361. 
Verticillium alhoatrum, 267. 
viability of seeds, 399. 
Vicia Fata, 10, 239, 250. 
Vigna, species, 10, 241. 
Vitacese, 3. 

Voandzeia snhterannea, 10. 
Voorhees; basic formula, 383. 

celery fertilizing, 130. 

pulse fertilizer, 228. 

root crop fertilizers, 162. 

tomato fertilizer, 257. 

wart of potatoes, 203. 
water caltrop, 10, 



Avater-chestnut, 7, 10. 
water-cress, 118, 119. 

listed, 5. 
water-heated hotbeds, 350. 
watering frames, 360. 
Water-lily Family, 8. 
watermelon, botany of, 310. 

discussion of, 296. 

listed, 11. 
Water-Plantain Family, 7. 
Watts, R. L., cited, 14. 
Waugh, quoted, 99. 
wax gourd, 281. 
■\\ebworm, cabbage, 70 
weeds, discussion of, 423. 
weighing seeds, 17. 
Welsh onion, 156, 159. 
whale-oil soap, 429. 
wheel-hoe, 395. 
white-fly, 435. 

grubs, 433. 
winter melon, 307. 

purslane, 63. 

savory, 334. 
wintering autumn-sown plants, 
363. 

wiroAA orms, 432. 

Avitloof, discussion of, 114. 

listed, 6. 
wonderberry, 11, 255. 
Wood-sorrel Family, 8. 
Work, Paul, cited, 418. 
wormwood, 7, 334. 

Xanthosoma sugittifolium, 7. 

yam-bean. 8, 10. 

Family, 8. 

listed, 9. 
yautia, 7. 

j-ellows of cabbage, 68. 

yield of dried vegetables, 465. 

of seeds, 406. 
young-tsai, 6. 

Zea Mays, 9, 322. 

saccharata, 322. 
zebra caterpillar, 71. 
Zingiberaceae, 7. 
Zinrii'ber offlcinaJe, 7. 
Zizania lati folia, 3, 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



